Studies commissioned by union contractor groups and independent research firms confirm that the cost advantages gained by nonunion contractors over union firms are achieved through the efficient management of operational costs and an innovative labor-management technique employed regularly by merit shop contractors called multiskilling.
Understanding the Merit Shop Contractor Cost Advantage | The Truth About PLAs
The Big Three are also distinguished not just by their size and geography, but also by their business model. The majority of their operations are unionized (United Auto Workers and Canadian Auto Workers), resulting in higher labor costs than other multinational automakers, including those with plants in North America.[7] The 2005 Harbour Report estimated that Toyota's lead in labour productivity amounted to a cost advantage of $350 US to $500 US per vehicle over American manufacturers.[1] The UAW agreed to a two-tier wage in recent 2007 negotiations, something which the CAW has so far refused.[8] Delphi, which was spun off from GM in 1999, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy after the UAW refused to cut their wages and GM is expected to be liable for a $7 billion shortfall
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Three_(automobile_manufacturers)