THE PETM: AN EXTREME Global Biogeochemical PERTURBATION
At the PETM, within a very short time interval, at least 2000 Gt of carbon were added to the ocean-atmosphere system, and polar temperatures soared by as much as 8°C (Kennett et al., 1991; Thomas & Shackleton, 1996; Katz et al., 1999). The primary evidence for these changes comes from high-resolution isotope records (e.g., Fig. 1) which show dramatic negative excursions in d13C and d18O. As highlighted throughout this proposal, many other records across the PETM generally support massive carbon input (e.g., pronounced carbonate dissolution on the seafloor) or extreme warmth (e.g., pronounced increase in warm water nannoplankton in open ocean sites, and migration of low-latitude biota to high latitudes).
As for the carbon source, both empirical and theoretical evidence implicate a massive and rapid release of marine methane hydrates. The primary geochemical evidence is a coeval >3‰ negative carbon isotope excursion in both marine and terrestrial reservoirs at the PETM (Fig. 1) . The presence of a regional seismic discontinuity indicative of a massive slump along the eastern continental margin of the US further supports this hypothesis . The primary theoretical evidence comes from numerical consideration of carbon isotopes, fluxes, and mass balance constraints, which require a very 12C enriched carbon source (i.e., one that is produced by bacteria).
Coupled to the carbon cycle and temperature perturbations are large-scale and widespread changes in physical, chemical, geological, and hydrological systems including changes in ocean and atmosphere circulation, precipitation patterns and intensity, and the global sedimentation patterns (Sloan et al. 1997). Deep-sea sediment cores are characterized by pronounced, widespread carbonate dissolution at the start of the PETM followed by gradual increases in carbonate and barium accumulation at some locations . In near shore and shallow marine environments, increased accumulation of carbonates and clastics occurs, particularly kaolinite, a chemical weathering byproduct
The LPTM