Symbolic racism (also known as
modern-symbolic racism,
modern racism,
[1] symbolic prejudice, and
racial resentment) is a coherent belief system that reflects an underlying unidimensional prejudice towards
black people in the United States. These beliefs include
the stereotype that blacks are morally inferior to white people, and that they violate traditional
White American values such as hard work and independence. This is also more of a general term than it is specifically related to prejudice towards black people. It can be more generally characterized as an open dislike and derogation of individuals related to one's self.[
clarification needed] These beliefs may cause the subject to
discriminate against black people and to justify this discrimination.
[2] Some people do not view symbolic racism as prejudice since it is not linked directly to race but indirectly through social and political issues.
[3]
David O. Sears and P.J. Henry characterize symbolic racism as the expression or endorsement of four specific themes or beliefs:
[4]
- Blacks no longer face much prejudice or discrimination.
- The failure of blacks to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough.
- Blacks are demanding too much too fast.
- Blacks have gotten more than they deserve.
Symbolic racism is a form of modern racism, as it is more subtle and indirect than more overt forms of racism,
[5] such as those characterized in
Jim Crow laws. As symbolic racism develops through socialization and its processes occur without conscious awareness,
[6] an individual with symbolic racist beliefs may genuinely oppose racism and believe they are not racist.[7] Symbolic racism is perhaps the most prevalent racial attitude today.[8]
Definition[edit]
In the aftermath of the
Civil Rights Movement, old-fashioned (or "
Jim Crow") racism dissolved along with
segregation in the United States. Some people believe that new forms of racism began to replace old-fashioned racism.
[9] Symbolic racism is a term that was coined by David Sears and John McConahay in 1973
[10] to explain why most white Americans supported principles of equality for black Americans, but less than half were willing to support programs designed to implement these principles. The original theory described three definitive aspects of symbolic racism:
[11][12]
- A new form of racism had replaced old-fashioned Jim Crow racism, as it was no longer popular and could no longer be influential in politics as only a small minority still accepted it.
- Opposition to black politicians and racially targeted policies is more influenced by symbolic racism than by any perceived or true threat to whites' own personal lives.
- The origins of this form of racism lay in early-socialized negative feelings about blacks associated with traditional conservative values.
The concept of symbolic racism has evolved over time but most writings currently define symbolic racism as containing four themes:[1]
- Racial discrimination is no longer a serious obstacle to blacks' prospects for a good life.
- Blacks' continuing disadvantages are largely due to their unwillingness to work hard enough.
- Blacks' continuing demands are unwarranted.
- Blacks' increased advantages are also unwarranted.
Whitley and Kite cite six underlying factors that contribute to symbolic racism. They are to this day believed to have been some of the biggest influences on modern racism.[6]
- Implicitly anti-black affect and negative stereotypes.
- Racialized belief in traditional values.
- Belief in equality of opportunity.
- Low belief in equality of outcome.
- Group self-interest.
- Low knowledge of black people.
According to Whitley and Kite, those who hold symbolic racist beliefs tend to hold implicitly negative attitudes, most likely gained in
childhood, towards blacks that may or may not be conscious.
[6] These attitudes may not be outright hatred, but rather fear, disgust, anger, contempt, etc. In addition, those who hold symbolic racist beliefs may also believe in traditional American values such as hard work, individuality, and self-restraint.[6] However, these beliefs have become racialized. Many perceive that black individuals do not hold or act in accordance with these values.[6] Instead, black individuals rely on public assistance, seek government favors, and act impulsively.[6] As Whitley and Kite note, "The fact that White people also accept public assistance, seek government favors, and act impulsively is not relevant to people with symbolic prejudice; it is their perception (usually in stereotypic terms) of Black people's behavior that they focus on."[6] Furthermore, those with symbolic prejudice tend to believe in the equality of opportunity, which includes access to resources such as education, housing, and employment.
[6] However, they tend not to believe in the equality of outcome. This explains how people can support the principle of racial equality but not support initiatives to achieve it, such as affirmative action. Government intervention when individuals do not have the same talent, effort or historical background would violate traditional values of equality of opportunity.
[6] Thus, "people can simultaneously endorse equality of opportunity and reject government intervention to bring about equality of outcome."
[6] Group self-interest reflects the idea that people try to do what is best for their group.[6] This idea manifests itself in the opinion that whites are deprived as a group of opportunities due to policies intended to benefit blacks. Finally, Whitley and Kite state most whites do not have extensive personal experience with blacks so the negative stereotypes they hold about blacks do not have the opportunity to be dispelled.
Symbolic racism - Wikipedia
These things sound familiar? The majority of whites here do all these things.