I have posted on other threads Britannica's list of carbon in sediments, rocks, etc - e.g. over 64 million petagrams of carbon in earth's crustal carbonate deposits (primarily Calcium carbonate = Calcite = CaCO3 in Limestone deposited by the geologic carbon cycle which requires a massive carbon dioxide atmosphere being dissolved by earth's primordial oceans and then combining with Calcium ions in the ocean to produce CaCO3 [along with other carbonates]). Chemical evolutionists ignore those Calcium ions in earth's primordial ocean because those ions would destroy molecules on potential chemical pathways to amino acids (in proteins) and nucleic acids (in RNA).
However, there are many other minerals in earth's crust, as well as sediments (e.g. sandstone - sand is mostly Silicon Dioxide [SiO2] which is oxidized Silicon).
Oxygen is the most abundant element in earth's crust, Silicon is not far behind.
In my next post I will begin listing common (and some very beautiful) minerals in earth's crust - feel free to post anything relevant to thread title you all!
Learn the name of the most common mineral on Earth, breaking it down into abundance in the Earth's crust, mantle, and core.
sciencenotes.org
"Quartz Is the Most Common Mineral on Land
In school, you likely learned the most common mineral is quartz, which is a silicate or SiO2 mineral. The pure crystalline form of this mineral is also as rock crystal. Quartz is the most common mineral found on land and the surface of the continents. It’s found in its pure form and also in sand, granite, gneiss, and other rocks. Quartz is the “correct” answer to the question most of the time in school. Otherwise, it’s not a great answer.
Feldspar Is the Most Common Mineral in the Earth’s Crust
While the continents may contain a lot of quartz, the most abundant mineral in the entire Earth’s crust is feldspar. If you consider the entire crust, quartz is only the second most common mineral.
Feldspar is a catch-all name for a large group of minerals that all have the chemical formula XZ4O8 where X is a mixture of K (potassium), Na (sodium), and Ca (calcium) and Z is a mixture of Si (silicon) and Al (aluminum). These minerals are called silicates and aluminates."
[O is Oxygen - note 8 atoms of Oxygen per 4 atoms of Aluminum or Silicon]
In case you haven't guessed by now, Aluminum is also a common element in earth's crust. Bauxite is the most common ore used to produce Aluminum.
Almost all of the aluminum that has ever been produced has been made from bauxite. Many people are surprised to learn that bauxite is a rock and not a mineral.
geology.com
"Bauxite does not have a specific composition. It is a mixture of hydrous aluminum oxides, aluminum hydroxides, clay minerals, and insoluble materials such as quartz, hematite, magnetite, siderite, and goethite. The aluminum minerals in bauxite can include: gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite AlO(OH), and, diaspore, AlO(OH) "
Note the other abundant elements in the latter 3 Aluminum minerals. Al(OH)3 is equal amounts of Hydrogen and Oxygen; boehmite (AlO(OH) is two atoms of Oxygen per Hydrogen atom ditto: diaspore. In contrast water (H2O) is 2 atoms of Hydrogen per Oxygen atom.
Bottom line: How did all this Oxygen get into earth's minerals? Put another way - how did these minerals get Oxidized when water has more Hydrogen than Oxygen?
Learn the name of the most common mineral on Earth, breaking it down into abundance in the Earth's crust, mantle, and core.
sciencenotes.org
Olivine, which forms the gemstone peridot, is the most common mineral in the Earth’s mantle. The bridgmanite form of olivine the most common mineral on Earth. (Rob Lavinsky / iRocks.com)
Olivine is a green rock-forming mineral found mainly in dark-colored igneous rocks and thought to be the most abundant mineral in the mantle.
geology.com
"Olivine is the name of a group of rock-forming minerals that are typically found in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, dunite, diabase, and peridotite. They are usually green in color and have compositions that typically range between Mg2SiO4 and Fe2SiO4 ....
"Most olivine found at Earth's surface is in dark-colored igneous rocks. ....
"Olivine is the name given to a group of silicate minerals that have a generalized chemical composition of A2SiO4. In that generalized composition, "A" is usually Mg or Fe, but in unusual situations can be Ca, Mn, or Ni.
The chemical composition of most olivine falls somewhere between pure forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and pure fayalite (Fe2SiO4). In that series, Mg and Fe can substitute freely for one another in the mineral's atomic structure - in any ratio. This type of continuous compositional variation is known as a "solid solution" and is represented in a chemical formula as (Mg,Fe)2SiO4."
Like the other abundant minerals and sediments in earth's crust (and in the case of Olivine, in earth's mantle) Oxygen predominates. NO hydrogen is present and there are 4 Oxygen atoms for each Silicon atom!
So how did so much Oxygen get into those minerals and sediments?
As I posted, origin of life synthesis experiments touted by chemical evolutionists posit zero Oxygen in early earth's atmosphere because Oxygen destroys organic compounds required for amino acid and nucleic acid synthesis. From:
Earth’s atmospheric composition at the time of the origin of life is not known, but it has often been suggested that chemical transformation of reactive species in the atmosphere was a significant source of prebiotic organic molecules. Experimental ...
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
"Earth’s atmospheric composition at the time of the origin of life is not known, but it has often been suggested that chemical transformation of reactive species in the atmosphere was a significant source of prebiotic organic molecules. Experimental and theoretical studies over the past half century have shown that atmospheric synthesis can yield molecules such as amino acids and nucleobases, but these processes are very sensitive to gas composition and energy source. Abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is more productive in reduced atmospheres, yet the primitive Earth may not have been as reducing as earlier workers assumed, and recent research has reflected this shift in thinking. ....
"the state of the atmosphere in the first billion years of Earth’s existence has significant implications for the origin and evolution of life ....
"The idea of the prebiotic Earth as a roiling organic “soup” with a highly reduced atmosphere of H2, H2O, methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3) was first presented by Oparin [32]. Such an atmosphere was part of his model of chemical evolution in which reduced gases led to the production of organic molecules, providing an environment more conducive to the evolution of life. The landmark experiments by Miller and Urey, partially modeled on Oparin’s hypothesis, demonstrated production of amino acids via the action of an electric discharge on a H2, H2O, CH4, and NH3 gas mixture, supporting the theory of prebiotic synthesis in a reduced primitive atmosphere [33-35] Sagan and Mullen [24] determined that moderate quantities (ppm) of NH3 would resolve the Faint Young Sun Paradox. However, since the early 1980s, it has been thought that the primitive atmosphere was more oxidized, and contained large quantities of carbon dioxide. Comparisons of the carbon reservoirs on Earth and Venus (the former being equivalent in magnitude, but sequestered largely in the crust) suggest that CO2 on the early Earth could have provided the needed warming if it was more abundant in the atmosphere [36]. NH3 was shown to have a very short lifetime in the atmosphere of the early Earth due to photodissociation [37]. CO2, however, was assumed to be abundant and long-lived in the ancient atmosphere; as long as volcanic emissions were as high as those seen today and weathering was low, CO2 could have accumulated to large concentrations in the atmosphere [38]. A partial pressure of 0.20 bar CO2, more than 500 times the present atmospheric level, would have been needed to maintain a surface temperature above the freezing point of water [38]. Such an atmosphere may have been less favorable to the formation of organic molecules, although not necessarily prohibitive depending on ocean chemistry [39, 40]"
It should be noted that the way earth's CO2 was deposited in earth's crust by the geologic carbon cycle confirms that early earth was covered with water, as stated in Genesis 1:2. However, these sedimentary deposits (as in common Limestone - CaCO3) not only required atmospheric CO2 of quantities similar to Venus today, but also dissolved oceanic Calcium ions. This is often ignored in models of early ocean chemistry because Calcium ions destroy organic molecules.
Also, while the article mentions photodissociation (=photolysis) of ammonia (NH3), it does not mention photolysis of water which would have yielded free Oxygen into earth's atmosphere.
Oh, and the article notes the importance of Miller's experiment which detractors scoff at.
Bottom line: Photodissociation (= photolysis) of water (2H2O) into 2H2 + O2 (actually the first step is highly reactive atomic Oxygen/O) would have provided free Oxygen into earth's atmosphere though in low percentage because of its being so reactive. Hydrogen being a light gas would tend to escape but that would not be the case with Oxygen any more than with carbon dioxide (CO2) which is an even heavier gas.
But the reason Oxygen percentage would have been low is because it was oxidizing minerals for billions of years - however, it would also have oxidized organic molecules required for the synthesis of amino acids and nucleotides (& nucleic acids) which are required for proteins and RNA (and DNA) which are required for life.
Also relevant is when earth's minerals became oxidized. Thus far the evidence I have noted in my research is that this was ongoing both before and after the origin of life - what have you all found to be the case?
As I mentioned and detailed in the atomic composition of earth's' minerals (e.g. feldspar and quartz) and sediments (as in quartz/sand/SiO2 and in carbonates as in limestone (CaCO3) - Oxygen is the most abundant element in earth's crust - e.g. see:
"The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98×1024 kg. In bulk, by mass, it is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements.[12] ...
"The mass-abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth's crust is approximately: oxygen 46%, silicon 28%, aluminum 8.3%, iron 5.6%, calcium 4.2%, sodium 2.5%, magnesium 2.4%, potassium 2.0%, and titanium 0.61%"
This is not a contradiction - the first excerpt is for the entire earth (core, mantle, crust). The core has much iron and some nickel. The crust and mantle have more Oxygen.
As noted, the crust has more Quartz while the mantle has more feldspar - both of which have an abundance of Oxygen. In my next posts a little more on Quartz (sand is also SiO2): {see above concerning feldspar (as in granite which has both quartz and feldspar) and marble
Granite is the most widely known igneous rock. It is an intrusive rock with visible grains of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals. It is durable and widely used in construction and architecture.
geology.com
"Granite is a plutonic rock in which quartz makes up between 10 and 50 percent of the felsic components and alkali feldspar accounts for 65 to 90 percent of the total feldspar content."
Note: plutonic does not mean granite came from Pluto or produced by the god Pluto. It actually means igneous rock solidified deep below earth's surface
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms through the metamorphism of limestone. It has a greater number of potential uses than almost any other rock type.
geology.com
"Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to the heat and pressure of metamorphism. It is composed primarily of the mineral calcite (CaCO3) and usually contains other minerals, such as clay minerals, micas, quartz, pyrite, iron oxides, and graphite. Under the conditions of metamorphism, the calcite in the limestone recrystallizes to form a rock that is a mass of interlocking calcite crystals. A related rock, dolomitic marble, is produced when dolostone is subjected to heat and pressure."
So some of carbonates in earth's crust (e.g. CaCO3/limestone) was subjected to heat and pressure which indicates the geologic carbon cycle began before the origin of life on earth - and continues today btw.
Mica, any of a group of hydrous potassium, aluminum silicate minerals. It is a type of phyllosilicate, exhibiting a two-dimensional sheet or layer structure. Among the principal rock-forming minerals, micas are found in all three major rock varieties—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
www.britannica.com
"The general formula for minerals of the mica group is XY2–3Z4O10(OH, F)2 with X = K, Na, Ba, Ca, Cs, (H3O), (NH4); Y = Al, Mg, Fe2+, Li, Cr, Mn, V, Zn; and Z = Si, Al, Fe3+, Be, Ti. Compositions of the common rock-forming micas are given in the
table. "
Notice the abundance of Oxygen in O(10) [10 atoms of Oxygen!] and (OH)2. Note also that in table 23 these most abundant micas do not have hydrogen rich NH4 or H3O.
Clay mineral, any of a group of important hydrous aluminum silicates with a layer (sheetlike) structure and very small particle size. They may contain significant amounts of iron, alkali metals, or alkaline earths. The term clay is generally applied to (1) a natural material with plastic
www.britannica.com
"Some clay minerals may be expressed using ideal chemical formulas as the following: 2SiO2·Al2O3·2H2O (kaolinite), 4SiO2·Al2O3·H2O (pyrophyllite), 4SiO2·3MgO·H2O (talc), and 3SiO2·Al2O3·5FeO·4H2O (chamosite). The SiO2 ratio in a formula is the key factor determining clay mineral types.
Notice the abundance of Oxygen and the chemically bonded (hydrous) water molecule: "hydrous aluminumsilicates.'
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Pyrite (fool's gold) is the most abundant sulfide mineral: FeS2 - not very common though. Fe=Iron; S=Sulfur.
""Oxygen and iron are the most and the fourth most abundant elements by mass in the earth’s crust, in which their respective proportions amount to 46.6 and 5.0 percent. It is therefore not surprising that compounds made up of these two elements are common in nature."
Iron (Fe), chemical element and one of the transition elements, the most-used and cheapest metal. Iron makes up 5 percent of Earth’s crust and is second in abundance to aluminum among the metals. Iron, which is the chief constituent of Earth’s core, is the most abundant element in Earth as a whole.
www.britannica.com
"Iron makes up 5 percent of Earth’s crust and is second in abundance to aluminum among the metals and fourth in abundance behind oxygen, silicon, and aluminum among the elements. Iron, which is the chief constituent of Earth’s core, is the most abundant element in Earth as a whole (about 35 percent) and is relatively plentiful in the Sun and other stars. In the crust the free metal is rare ....
"Iron is also found combined with other elements in hundreds of minerals; of greatest importance as iron ore are hematite (ferric oxide, Fe2O3), magnetite (triiron tetroxide, Fe3O4), limonite (hydrated ferric oxide hydroxide, FeO(OH)∙nH2O), and siderite (ferrous carbonate, FeCO3)."
Of course, with the suffix Oxide, Iron Oxides contain an abundance of Oxygen as the above chemical formulas demonstrate.
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graphite, like diamond, is pure carbon but crystalized differently.
"Graphite most often occurs in metamorphic rocks formed from regional metamorphism or contact metamorphism of organic-rich sedimentary rocks, such as organic-rich marble, quartzite, schist, gneiss, and metamorphosed coal. The sediment’s original organic component provides the source for the carbon from which graphite forms. As coal is almost completely composed of organic carbon, its metamorphism can produce large amounts of graphite-bearing rock."
All things considered I believe that life was brought to Earth in form of asteroids and meteorites and deposited upon impact. Didn't English scientists already verify at least one example of life in a meteorite? US scientists refused to acknowledge that truth. Probability says that life is spread through the galaxy much more with meteors than spontaneous chemical fusion.
The uses and properties of the mineral Quartz with photos
geology.com
"Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral found at Earth's surface, .... It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. "
"Overall Composition of the Earth's Crust
If one looks at the frequency of chemical elements, it is obvious that almost the entire earth's crust is made of silicates. Figure 1 shows a pie chart of the proportions of the 10 most frequent elements for the earth's crust.
Fig.1: The 10 Most Frequent Chemical Elements of the Earth's Crust"
No matter how you slice it (by weight/mass or by atoms) the 3 most abundant elements in earth's crust are Oxygen, Silicon and aluminum. Quartz is SiO2 = 2 atoms of Oxygen per one atom of Silicon. Because Hydrogen is so light it doesn't even weight in! (pun intended) https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url...hUKEwjP_M7rtdXpAhUcAzQIHYXkCV4Qr4kDegUIARCuAg
Quartz is a hard mineral consisting of silicon and oxygen. It's one of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust There are several different types of quartz, including amethyst, citrine, milky quartz, rose quartz,
www.zmescience.com
via Pixabay.
Perhaps the most striking representative of the quartz ‘family’, amethyst has been admired since the dawn of civilization
Citrine:
Photo via Pixabay.
Citrine is the yellow variety of quartz (“citrium” means lemon in Latin),
