Polish Greatness
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Patek Philippe's Polish history
Thinking of buying a new watch for a family member? Well, everyone knows that the best watches are Swiss watches, particularly a Patek Philippe. However, the question remains: just how Swiss are these watches? The truth is that Switzerland's watchmaking fame is largely due to the work of Polish patriots that were forced to emigrate from Russian-occupied Poland after the failed November Uprising of 1830-1. The most prominent of these émigrés was Antoni Patek who distinguished himself in the rebellion and received the Virtuti Militari Golden Cross (highest Polish military honor). Afterwards, he settled in Switzerland and started his watchmaking business with Franciszek Czapek, establishing Patek, Czapek & Co. in 1839. In 1861, the company name changed to the world famous Patek Philippe Company. The Poles revolutionized watchmaking by combining beauty with precision and expanding their business on an international scale. At the same time, loyal to their homeland, Patek and the other Poles made sure that people knew that these were Polish watches by decorating them with images from Polish history as well as portraits of Polish national heroes such as Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Prince Jozef Poniatowski. In 1867, the company presented the first wristwatch. From the very beginning to this day, Patek Philippe watches have been considered the best in the world. Thus the pride of Switzerland should more fittingly be the pride of Poles.
Watch This!: Patek Philippe's Polish history
Thinking of buying a new watch for a family member? Well, everyone knows that the best watches are Swiss watches, particularly a Patek Philippe. However, the question remains: just how Swiss are these watches? The truth is that Switzerland's watchmaking fame is largely due to the work of Polish patriots that were forced to emigrate from Russian-occupied Poland after the failed November Uprising of 1830-1. The most prominent of these émigrés was Antoni Patek who distinguished himself in the rebellion and received the Virtuti Militari Golden Cross (highest Polish military honor). Afterwards, he settled in Switzerland and started his watchmaking business with Franciszek Czapek, establishing Patek, Czapek & Co. in 1839. In 1861, the company name changed to the world famous Patek Philippe Company. The Poles revolutionized watchmaking by combining beauty with precision and expanding their business on an international scale. At the same time, loyal to their homeland, Patek and the other Poles made sure that people knew that these were Polish watches by decorating them with images from Polish history as well as portraits of Polish national heroes such as Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Prince Jozef Poniatowski. In 1867, the company presented the first wristwatch. From the very beginning to this day, Patek Philippe watches have been considered the best in the world. Thus the pride of Switzerland should more fittingly be the pride of Poles.
Watch This!: Patek Philippe's Polish history
SobieskiSavedEurope
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My white people have invented pretty much everything. Gone to the moon...Those are the best 3?
What has your ethnic heritage invented?
What kind of "White person" are you, exactly?
SobieskiSavedEurope
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Bruno Abakanowicz
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Bruno Abakanowicz
Born 6 October 1852
Ukmergė, Lithuania (then part of Russian Empire)
Died 29 August 1900 (aged 47)
Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France
Occupation mathematician, inventor and electrical engineer
Bruno Abdank-Abakanowicz (6 October 1852 – 29 August 1900) was a Polish mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer.
Contents
Life[edit]
Abakanowicz was born in 1852 in Vilkmergė, Russian Empire (now Lithuania).[1] After graduating from the Riga Technical University, Abakanowicz passed his habilitation[2] and began an assistantship at the Technical University of Lwów. In 1881, he moved to France[2] where he purchased a villa in Parc St. Maur on the outskirts of Paris.
Earlier he invented the integraph, a form of the integrator, which was patented in 1880,[3] and was henceforth produced by the Swiss firm Coradi.[4] Among his other patents were the parabolagraph, the spirograph, the electric bell used in trains, and an electric arc lamp of his own design.[5] Abakanowicz published several works, including works on statistics, integrators and numerous popular scientific works, such as one describing his integraph. He was also hired by the French government as an expert on electrification and was the main engineer behind the electrification of, among other places, the city of Lyon.[2] His patents allowed him to become a wealthy man and made him receive the Legion d'Honneur in 1889.
The Château de Costaérès
Around that time he retired to a small island in Trégastel, off the coast of Brittany, where between 1892 and 1896 he erected a neo-Gothic manor.[6] Although the construction works were not finished in Abakanowicz's lifetime, the castle of Costaérès became a notable centre of Polish emigree culture, housing many notable artists, scientists and politicians. Among frequent guests of Abakanowicz were Aleksander Gierymski, Władysław Mickiewicz, Leon Wyczółkowski and Henryk Sienkiewicz. The latter became the closest friend of Abakanowicz. It was in Abakanowicz's villa in Parc St. Maur that he finished his The Teutonic Knights and The Polaniecki Family, while the Quo Vadis novel, one of the works for which Sienkiewicz was awarded with the Nobel Prize, was written entirely in Abakanowicz's manor.[2]
Bruno Abakanowicz died suddenly on 29 August 1900. In his will, he made Sienkiewicz the tutor of his sole daughter Zofia, who later graduated from the London School of Economics and the Sorbonne and was murdered during World War II at the Auschwitz concentration camp.
As for Abakanowicz's nationality, he was born in the lands which were once part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some later documents refer to him as a Russian because at the time of his birth, Ukmergė was part of the Russian Empire. Encyclopædia Britannica calls him a Lithuanian mathematician in its article on the integraph. Others consider him a Pole due to his fluent command of the language, friendship with many leading Polish personalities of the time, and literary contributions in Polish.[2] His surname Abakanowicz which has Lipka Tatar roots goes back to the szlachta of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Abdank coat of arms.[7][8][9][10]
Bruno Abakanowicz - Wikipedia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Bruno Abakanowicz
Born 6 October 1852
Ukmergė, Lithuania (then part of Russian Empire)
Died 29 August 1900 (aged 47)
Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France
Occupation mathematician, inventor and electrical engineer
Bruno Abdank-Abakanowicz (6 October 1852 – 29 August 1900) was a Polish mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer.
Contents
Life[edit]
Abakanowicz was born in 1852 in Vilkmergė, Russian Empire (now Lithuania).[1] After graduating from the Riga Technical University, Abakanowicz passed his habilitation[2] and began an assistantship at the Technical University of Lwów. In 1881, he moved to France[2] where he purchased a villa in Parc St. Maur on the outskirts of Paris.
Earlier he invented the integraph, a form of the integrator, which was patented in 1880,[3] and was henceforth produced by the Swiss firm Coradi.[4] Among his other patents were the parabolagraph, the spirograph, the electric bell used in trains, and an electric arc lamp of his own design.[5] Abakanowicz published several works, including works on statistics, integrators and numerous popular scientific works, such as one describing his integraph. He was also hired by the French government as an expert on electrification and was the main engineer behind the electrification of, among other places, the city of Lyon.[2] His patents allowed him to become a wealthy man and made him receive the Legion d'Honneur in 1889.
The Château de Costaérès
Around that time he retired to a small island in Trégastel, off the coast of Brittany, where between 1892 and 1896 he erected a neo-Gothic manor.[6] Although the construction works were not finished in Abakanowicz's lifetime, the castle of Costaérès became a notable centre of Polish emigree culture, housing many notable artists, scientists and politicians. Among frequent guests of Abakanowicz were Aleksander Gierymski, Władysław Mickiewicz, Leon Wyczółkowski and Henryk Sienkiewicz. The latter became the closest friend of Abakanowicz. It was in Abakanowicz's villa in Parc St. Maur that he finished his The Teutonic Knights and The Polaniecki Family, while the Quo Vadis novel, one of the works for which Sienkiewicz was awarded with the Nobel Prize, was written entirely in Abakanowicz's manor.[2]
Bruno Abakanowicz died suddenly on 29 August 1900. In his will, he made Sienkiewicz the tutor of his sole daughter Zofia, who later graduated from the London School of Economics and the Sorbonne and was murdered during World War II at the Auschwitz concentration camp.
As for Abakanowicz's nationality, he was born in the lands which were once part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Some later documents refer to him as a Russian because at the time of his birth, Ukmergė was part of the Russian Empire. Encyclopædia Britannica calls him a Lithuanian mathematician in its article on the integraph. Others consider him a Pole due to his fluent command of the language, friendship with many leading Polish personalities of the time, and literary contributions in Polish.[2] His surname Abakanowicz which has Lipka Tatar roots goes back to the szlachta of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Abdank coat of arms.[7][8][9][10]
Bruno Abakanowicz - Wikipedia
SobieskiSavedEurope
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How Poland Saved the World from Russia
The world expected a rapid Communist victory. The Poles had other ideas.
by Michael Peck
In the summer of 1920, Russia seemed poised to take over Europe.
Newly victorious in the Russian Civil War , but convinced that the capitalists were bent on strangling the cradle of Communism, the Bolsheviks looked for salvation. Their gaze fell on Germany, exhausted and embittered by defeat in the First World War, and now engulfed in civil strife between Communist revolutionaries and protofascist freikorps paramilitaries. If only the Red Army's bayonets could install a Bolshevik regime in Berlin, then the two most powerful states in Central and Eastern Europe would be united in a Communist monolith. And from there, perhaps Communism would spread to Italy, France, Hungary and beyond. Could Marx's prediction of world revolution finally be at hand?
Unfortunately for Lenin and Trotsky, an obstacle stood in their way. It was called Poland.
Like Communist Russia, Poland was also a new nation, though of a very different kind. The Bolsheviks only needed to overthrow the Tsarist government to take over the Russian state: the Poles had to create their own state. Though the seventeenth-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had extended deep into present-day Russia and Ukraine, Poland as an independent nation had been snuffed out in the eighteenth century, its territory partitioned between the Russian, German and Austrian empires. When those empires collapsed after World War I, the Poles took advantage of the chaos to resurrect their nation.
Yet as they had for centuries, Poland and Russia again would go to war. One reason was rival claims for the borderlands between the two nations—those "bloodlands" of Belarus and Ukraine that were perpetual battlefields. The deeper cause was geography; a glance at the map shows that the land bridge from Moscow to Berlin runs through Poland, whose unfortunate fate was to be wedged between Germany and Russia.
War would pit David-ski versus Goliath-ovitch. Britain and France rated Poland's chances for victory as nil against a Russian colossus endowed with vastly superior manpower and resources. But the West had not reckoned on the force of Polish nationalism and the powerful personality of Field Marshal Josef Pilsudski , the self-taught general who proved far shrewder than the professional military officers who had so badly bungled Verdun and the Somme.
Peace talks continued while both sides prepared for war. Poland struck first, launching a preemptive offensive in April 1919 that swiftly seized Kiev. But they failed in their goal to destroy the retreating Russian armies and, even worse, discovered that the Ukrainians hated Polish occupation as much as they did the Bolsheviks. Poland also learned that nationalism cuts both ways; thousands of patriotic Tsarist officers, a group once targeted for murder by the Communists, now offered their professional expertise to the Red Army in patriotic outrage against the Polish attack.
The tide turned against Poland. Led by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky , the genius of mechanized warfare later executed by Stalin, the heavily reinforced Russian armies marched on Warsaw, driving the outnumbered and outgunned Polish forces before them.
The fighting was epic, colorful and merciless. The Poles raised divisions of enthusiastic but inexperienced and poorly armed volunteers, leavened by their countrymen who had learned soldiering in the armies of Germany, Austria and Russia. From America came the Kosciuszko Squadron of American volunteer pilots. From France came the Blue Army, a Polish force trained and equipped by the the Allies to fight on the Western Front, and which even brought its own tanks.
But the Bolsheviks had their 1st Cavalry Army , the dreaded Konarmiya, a horde of thousands of fast, hard-hitting horsemen led by mustachioed Marshal Semyon Budyonny . Russia also had sympathizers abroad; British dockworkers and German and Czech railwaymen heeded Moscow's call to save the socialist motherland and refuse to load supplies for Poland. Just as in 1939, Britain and France promised support but did little, other than to send a few advisers (Charles de Gaulle among them) who claimed much credit but contributed very little to the Polish war effort.
The Russo-Polish War was a world apart from the trenches and barbed wire of the Western Front. As Hitler's armies later discovered, the East was simply too vast for armies to form continuous lines of troops, which made warfare far more mobile. The plains of Central Poland lacked defensible terrain, and neither side had the time or resources to build the trenches that stalemated the Western battlefields. In France, cavalry had become an anachronism that sat idle while the infantry and artillery did the fighting. In Poland and Ukraine, the mobility and shock power of cavalry ruled. Despite the handful of tanks and airplanes, the fighting was almost Napoleonic, as Cossack horsemen and Polish lancers clashed in the last major cavalry battles in history.
How Poland Saved the World from Russia
The world expected a rapid Communist victory. The Poles had other ideas.
by Michael Peck
In the summer of 1920, Russia seemed poised to take over Europe.
Newly victorious in the Russian Civil War , but convinced that the capitalists were bent on strangling the cradle of Communism, the Bolsheviks looked for salvation. Their gaze fell on Germany, exhausted and embittered by defeat in the First World War, and now engulfed in civil strife between Communist revolutionaries and protofascist freikorps paramilitaries. If only the Red Army's bayonets could install a Bolshevik regime in Berlin, then the two most powerful states in Central and Eastern Europe would be united in a Communist monolith. And from there, perhaps Communism would spread to Italy, France, Hungary and beyond. Could Marx's prediction of world revolution finally be at hand?
Unfortunately for Lenin and Trotsky, an obstacle stood in their way. It was called Poland.
Like Communist Russia, Poland was also a new nation, though of a very different kind. The Bolsheviks only needed to overthrow the Tsarist government to take over the Russian state: the Poles had to create their own state. Though the seventeenth-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had extended deep into present-day Russia and Ukraine, Poland as an independent nation had been snuffed out in the eighteenth century, its territory partitioned between the Russian, German and Austrian empires. When those empires collapsed after World War I, the Poles took advantage of the chaos to resurrect their nation.
Yet as they had for centuries, Poland and Russia again would go to war. One reason was rival claims for the borderlands between the two nations—those "bloodlands" of Belarus and Ukraine that were perpetual battlefields. The deeper cause was geography; a glance at the map shows that the land bridge from Moscow to Berlin runs through Poland, whose unfortunate fate was to be wedged between Germany and Russia.
War would pit David-ski versus Goliath-ovitch. Britain and France rated Poland's chances for victory as nil against a Russian colossus endowed with vastly superior manpower and resources. But the West had not reckoned on the force of Polish nationalism and the powerful personality of Field Marshal Josef Pilsudski , the self-taught general who proved far shrewder than the professional military officers who had so badly bungled Verdun and the Somme.
Peace talks continued while both sides prepared for war. Poland struck first, launching a preemptive offensive in April 1919 that swiftly seized Kiev. But they failed in their goal to destroy the retreating Russian armies and, even worse, discovered that the Ukrainians hated Polish occupation as much as they did the Bolsheviks. Poland also learned that nationalism cuts both ways; thousands of patriotic Tsarist officers, a group once targeted for murder by the Communists, now offered their professional expertise to the Red Army in patriotic outrage against the Polish attack.
The tide turned against Poland. Led by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky , the genius of mechanized warfare later executed by Stalin, the heavily reinforced Russian armies marched on Warsaw, driving the outnumbered and outgunned Polish forces before them.
The fighting was epic, colorful and merciless. The Poles raised divisions of enthusiastic but inexperienced and poorly armed volunteers, leavened by their countrymen who had learned soldiering in the armies of Germany, Austria and Russia. From America came the Kosciuszko Squadron of American volunteer pilots. From France came the Blue Army, a Polish force trained and equipped by the the Allies to fight on the Western Front, and which even brought its own tanks.
But the Bolsheviks had their 1st Cavalry Army , the dreaded Konarmiya, a horde of thousands of fast, hard-hitting horsemen led by mustachioed Marshal Semyon Budyonny . Russia also had sympathizers abroad; British dockworkers and German and Czech railwaymen heeded Moscow's call to save the socialist motherland and refuse to load supplies for Poland. Just as in 1939, Britain and France promised support but did little, other than to send a few advisers (Charles de Gaulle among them) who claimed much credit but contributed very little to the Polish war effort.
The Russo-Polish War was a world apart from the trenches and barbed wire of the Western Front. As Hitler's armies later discovered, the East was simply too vast for armies to form continuous lines of troops, which made warfare far more mobile. The plains of Central Poland lacked defensible terrain, and neither side had the time or resources to build the trenches that stalemated the Western battlefields. In France, cavalry had become an anachronism that sat idle while the infantry and artillery did the fighting. In Poland and Ukraine, the mobility and shock power of cavalry ruled. Despite the handful of tanks and airplanes, the fighting was almost Napoleonic, as Cossack horsemen and Polish lancers clashed in the last major cavalry battles in history.
How Poland Saved the World from Russia
SobieskiSavedEurope
Gold Member
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Stefan Banach (Polish: [ˈstɛfan ˈbanax] (
listen); 30 March 1892 – 31 August 1945) was a Polishmathematician[1] who is generally considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians. He was the founder of modern functional analysis,[2] and an original member of the Lwów School of Mathematics. His major work was the 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires (Theory of Linear Operations), the first monograph on the general theory of functional analysis.
Born in Kraków, Banach attended IV Gymnasium, a secondary school, and worked on mathematics problems with his friend Witold Wilkosz (pl). After graduating in 1910, Banach moved to Lwów. However, during World War I Banach returned to Kraków, where he befriended Hugo Steinhaus. After Banach solved some mathematics problems which Steinhaus considered difficult, they published their first joint work. In 1919, with several other mathematicians, Banach formed a mathematical society. In 1920 he received an assistantship at the Lwów Polytechnic. He soon became a professor at the Polytechnic, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning. He organized the "Lwów School of Mathematics". Around 1929 he began writing his Théorie des opérations linéaires.
After the outbreak of World War II, in September 1939, Lwów was taken over by the Soviet Union. Banach became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and was dean of Lwów University's Department of Mathematics and Physics. In 1941, when the Germans took over Lwów, all institutions of higher education were closed to Poles. As a result, Banach was forced to earn a living as a feeder of lice at Rudolf Weigl's Institute for Study of Typhus and Virology. While the job carried the risk of infection with typhus, it protected him from being sent to slave labor in Germany and from other forms of repression. When the Soviets recaptured Lwów in 1944, Banach reestablished the University. However, because the Soviets were removing Poles from Soviet-annexed formerly-Polish territories, Banach prepared to return to Kraków. Before he could do so, he died in August 1945, having been diagnosed seven months earlier with lung cancer.
Some of the notable mathematical concepts that bear Banach's name include Banach spaces, Banach algebras, Banach measures, the Banach–Tarski paradox, the Hahn–Banach theorem, the Banach–Steinhaus theorem, the Banach–Mazur game, the Banach–Alaoglu theorem, and the Banach fixed-point theorem.
Contents
Life[edit]
Early life[edit]
Stefan Banach was born on 30 March 1892 at St. Lazarus General Hospital in Kraków, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, into a Góral Roman Catholic family[3] and was subsequently baptised by his father, while his mother abandoned him upon this event and her identity is ambiguous.[4][5]Banach's parents were Stefan Greczek and Katarzyna Banach, both natives of the Podhale region.[6][7] Greczek was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army stationed in Kraków. Little is known about Banach's mother.[8] According to his baptismal certificate, she was born in Borówna and worked as a domestic help.[7]
Unusually, Stefan's surname was his mother's instead of his father's, though he received his father's given name, Stefan. Since Stefan Greczek was a private and was prevented by military regulations from marrying, and the mother was too poor to support the child, the couple decided that he should be reared by family and friends.[9] Stefan spent the first few years of his life with his grandmother, but when she took ill Greczek arranged for his son to be raised by Franciszka Płowa and her niece Maria Puchalska in Kraków. Young Stefan would regard Franciszka as his foster mother and Maria as his older sister.[10] In his early years Banach was tutored by Juliusz Mien, a French intellectual and friend of the Płowa family, who had emigrated to Poland and supported himself with photography and translations of Polish literature into French. Mien taught Banach French and most likely encouraged him in his early mathematical pursuits.[11]
In 1902 Banach, aged 10, enrolled in Kraków's IV Gymnasium (also known as the Goetz Gymnasium). While the school specialized in the humanities, Banach and his best friend Witold Wiłkosz (also a future mathematician) spent most of their time working on mathematics problems during breaks and after school.[12] Later in life Banach would credit Dr. Kamil Kraft, the mathematics and physics teacher at the gymnasium with kindling his interests in mathematics.[13] While generally Banach was a diligent student he did on occasion receive low grades (he failed Greek during his first semester at the gymnasium) and would later speak critically of the school's math teachers.[14]
After obtaining his matura (high school degree) at age 18 in 1910, Banach moved to Lwów with the intention of studying at the Lwów Polytechnic. He initially chose engineering as his field of study since at the time he was convinced that there was nothing new to discover in mathematics.[15] At some point he also attended Jagiellonian University in Kraków on a part-time basis. As Banach had to earn money to support his studies it was not until 1914 that he finally, at age 22, passed his high school graduation exams.[16]
When World War I broke out, Banach was excused from military service due to his left-handedness and poor vision. When the Russian Army opened its offensive toward Lwów, Banach left for Kraków, where he spent the rest of the war. He made his living as a tutor at the local gymnasiums, worked in a bookstore and as a foreman of road building crew. He attended some lectures at the Jagiellonian University at that time, including those of the famous Polish mathematicians Stanisław Zaremba and Kazimierz Żorawski, but little is known of that period of his life.[17]
Discovery by Steinhaus[edit]
Otto Nikodym and Stefan Banach Memorial Bench in Kraków, Poland(sculpted by Stefan Dousa)
In 1916, in Kraków's Planty gardens, Banach encountered Professor Hugo Steinhaus, one of the renowned mathematicians of the time. According to Steinhaus, while he was strolling through the gardens he was surprised to overhear the term "Lebesgue integral" (Lebesgue integration was at the time still a fairly new idea in mathematics) and walked over to investigate. As a result, he met Banach, as well as Otto Nikodym.[18] Steinhaus became fascinated with the self-taught young mathematician. The encounter resulted in a long-lasting collaboration and friendship. In fact, soon after the encounter Steinhaus invited Banach to solve some problems he had been working on but which had proven difficult. Banach solved them within a week and the two soon published their first joint work (On the Mean Convergence of Fourier Series). Steinhaus, Banach and Nikodym, along with several other Kraków mathematicians (Władysław Ślebodziński, Leon Chwistek, Alfred Rosenblatt and Włodzimierz Stożek) also established a mathematical society, which eventually became the Polish Mathematical Society.[19] The society was officially founded on 2 April 1919. It was also through Steinhaus that Banach met his future wife, Łucja Braus.
Interbellum[edit]
Scottish Café, meeting place of many famous Lwów mathematicians
Steinhaus introduced Banach to academic circles and substantially accelerated his career. After Poland regained independence in 1920, Banach was given an assistantship at the Lwów Polytechnic. Steinhaus' backing also allowed him to receive a doctorate without actually graduating from a university. The doctoral thesis, accepted by King John II Casimir University of Lwów in 1920 [20] and published in 1922,[21] included the basic ideas of functional analysis, which was soon to become an entirely new branch of mathematics. The thesis was widely discussed in academic circles and allowed him in 1922 to become a professor at the Lwów Polytechnic. Initially an assistant to Professor Antoni Łomnicki, in 1927 Banach received his own chair. In 1924 he was also accepted as a member of the Polish Academy of Learning. At the same time, from 1922, Banach also headed the second Chair of Mathematics at University of Lwów.
Young and talented, Banach gathered around him a large group of mathematicians. The group, meeting in the Scottish Café, soon gave birth to the "Lwów School of Mathematics". In 1929 the group began publishing its own journal, Studia Mathematica, devoted primarily to Banach's field of study — functional analysis. Around that time, Banach also began working on his best-known work, the first monograph on the general theory of linear-metric space. First published in Polish in 1931,[22] the following year it was also translated into French and gained wider recognition in European academic circles.[23] The book was also the first in a long series of mathematics monographs edited by Banach and his circle. In 17 June 1924 Banach become a correspondence member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts in Kraków.
World War II[edit]
Banach's grave, Lychakiv Cemetery, Lviv (Lwów, in Polish)
Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Lwów came under the control of the Soviet Union for almost two years. Banach, from 1939 a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, and on good terms with Soviet mathematicians,[8] had to promise to learn Ukrainian to be allowed to keep his chair and continue his academic activities.[24] Following the German takeover of Lwów in 1941 during Operation Barbarossa, all universities were closed and Banach, along with many colleagues and his son, was employed as lice feeder at Professor Rudolf Weigl's Typhus Research Institute. Employment in Weigl's Institute provided many unemployed university professors and their associates protection from random arrest and deportation to Nazi concentration camps.
After the Red Army recaptured Lviv in the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive of 1944, Banach returned to the University and helped re-establish it after the war years. However, because the Soviets were removing Poles from annexed formerly Polish territories, Banach began preparing to leave the city and settle in Kraków, Poland, where he had been promised a chair at the Jagiellonian University.[8] He was also considered a candidate for Minister of Education of Poland.[25] In January 1945, however, he was diagnosed with lung cancer and was allowed to stay in Lwów. He died on 31 August 1945, aged 53. His funeral at the Lychakiv Cemetery was attended by hundreds of people.[25]
Contributions[edit]
Decomposition of a ball into two identical balls - the Banach–Tarski paradox.
Banach's dissertation, completed in 1920 and published in 1922, formally axiomatized the concept of a complete normed vector space and laid the foundations for the area of functional analysis. In this work Banach called such spaces "class E-spaces", but in his 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires, he changed terminology and referred to them as "spaces of type B", which most likely contributed to the subsequent eponymous naming of these spaces after him.[26] The theory of what came to be known as Banach spaces had antecedents in the work of the Hungarian mathematician Frigyes Riesz (published in 1916) and contemporaneous contributions from Hans Hahn and Norbert Wiener.[20] For a brief period in fact, complete normed linear spaces were referred to as "Banach–Wiener" spaces in mathematical literature, based on terminology introduced by Wiener himself. However, because Wiener's work on the topic was limited, the established name became just Banach spaces.[26]
Likewise, Banach's fixed point theorem, based on earlier methods developed by Charles Émile Picard, was included in his dissertation, and was later extended by his students (for example in the Banach–Schauder theorem) and other mathematicians (in particular Brouwer and Poincaré and Birkhoff). The theorem did not require linearity of the space, and applied to any Cauchy space (complete metric space).[20]
The Hahn–Banach theorem, is one of the fundamental theorems of functional analysis.[20]
Stefan Banach - Wikipedia
listen); 30 March 1892 – 31 August 1945) was a Polishmathematician[1] who is generally considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians. He was the founder of modern functional analysis,[2] and an original member of the Lwów School of Mathematics. His major work was the 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires (Theory of Linear Operations), the first monograph on the general theory of functional analysis.Born in Kraków, Banach attended IV Gymnasium, a secondary school, and worked on mathematics problems with his friend Witold Wilkosz (pl). After graduating in 1910, Banach moved to Lwów. However, during World War I Banach returned to Kraków, where he befriended Hugo Steinhaus. After Banach solved some mathematics problems which Steinhaus considered difficult, they published their first joint work. In 1919, with several other mathematicians, Banach formed a mathematical society. In 1920 he received an assistantship at the Lwów Polytechnic. He soon became a professor at the Polytechnic, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning. He organized the "Lwów School of Mathematics". Around 1929 he began writing his Théorie des opérations linéaires.
After the outbreak of World War II, in September 1939, Lwów was taken over by the Soviet Union. Banach became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and was dean of Lwów University's Department of Mathematics and Physics. In 1941, when the Germans took over Lwów, all institutions of higher education were closed to Poles. As a result, Banach was forced to earn a living as a feeder of lice at Rudolf Weigl's Institute for Study of Typhus and Virology. While the job carried the risk of infection with typhus, it protected him from being sent to slave labor in Germany and from other forms of repression. When the Soviets recaptured Lwów in 1944, Banach reestablished the University. However, because the Soviets were removing Poles from Soviet-annexed formerly-Polish territories, Banach prepared to return to Kraków. Before he could do so, he died in August 1945, having been diagnosed seven months earlier with lung cancer.
Some of the notable mathematical concepts that bear Banach's name include Banach spaces, Banach algebras, Banach measures, the Banach–Tarski paradox, the Hahn–Banach theorem, the Banach–Steinhaus theorem, the Banach–Mazur game, the Banach–Alaoglu theorem, and the Banach fixed-point theorem.
Contents
Life[edit]
Early life[edit]
Stefan Banach was born on 30 March 1892 at St. Lazarus General Hospital in Kraków, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, into a Góral Roman Catholic family[3] and was subsequently baptised by his father, while his mother abandoned him upon this event and her identity is ambiguous.[4][5]Banach's parents were Stefan Greczek and Katarzyna Banach, both natives of the Podhale region.[6][7] Greczek was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army stationed in Kraków. Little is known about Banach's mother.[8] According to his baptismal certificate, she was born in Borówna and worked as a domestic help.[7]
Unusually, Stefan's surname was his mother's instead of his father's, though he received his father's given name, Stefan. Since Stefan Greczek was a private and was prevented by military regulations from marrying, and the mother was too poor to support the child, the couple decided that he should be reared by family and friends.[9] Stefan spent the first few years of his life with his grandmother, but when she took ill Greczek arranged for his son to be raised by Franciszka Płowa and her niece Maria Puchalska in Kraków. Young Stefan would regard Franciszka as his foster mother and Maria as his older sister.[10] In his early years Banach was tutored by Juliusz Mien, a French intellectual and friend of the Płowa family, who had emigrated to Poland and supported himself with photography and translations of Polish literature into French. Mien taught Banach French and most likely encouraged him in his early mathematical pursuits.[11]
In 1902 Banach, aged 10, enrolled in Kraków's IV Gymnasium (also known as the Goetz Gymnasium). While the school specialized in the humanities, Banach and his best friend Witold Wiłkosz (also a future mathematician) spent most of their time working on mathematics problems during breaks and after school.[12] Later in life Banach would credit Dr. Kamil Kraft, the mathematics and physics teacher at the gymnasium with kindling his interests in mathematics.[13] While generally Banach was a diligent student he did on occasion receive low grades (he failed Greek during his first semester at the gymnasium) and would later speak critically of the school's math teachers.[14]
After obtaining his matura (high school degree) at age 18 in 1910, Banach moved to Lwów with the intention of studying at the Lwów Polytechnic. He initially chose engineering as his field of study since at the time he was convinced that there was nothing new to discover in mathematics.[15] At some point he also attended Jagiellonian University in Kraków on a part-time basis. As Banach had to earn money to support his studies it was not until 1914 that he finally, at age 22, passed his high school graduation exams.[16]
When World War I broke out, Banach was excused from military service due to his left-handedness and poor vision. When the Russian Army opened its offensive toward Lwów, Banach left for Kraków, where he spent the rest of the war. He made his living as a tutor at the local gymnasiums, worked in a bookstore and as a foreman of road building crew. He attended some lectures at the Jagiellonian University at that time, including those of the famous Polish mathematicians Stanisław Zaremba and Kazimierz Żorawski, but little is known of that period of his life.[17]
Discovery by Steinhaus[edit]
Otto Nikodym and Stefan Banach Memorial Bench in Kraków, Poland(sculpted by Stefan Dousa)
In 1916, in Kraków's Planty gardens, Banach encountered Professor Hugo Steinhaus, one of the renowned mathematicians of the time. According to Steinhaus, while he was strolling through the gardens he was surprised to overhear the term "Lebesgue integral" (Lebesgue integration was at the time still a fairly new idea in mathematics) and walked over to investigate. As a result, he met Banach, as well as Otto Nikodym.[18] Steinhaus became fascinated with the self-taught young mathematician. The encounter resulted in a long-lasting collaboration and friendship. In fact, soon after the encounter Steinhaus invited Banach to solve some problems he had been working on but which had proven difficult. Banach solved them within a week and the two soon published their first joint work (On the Mean Convergence of Fourier Series). Steinhaus, Banach and Nikodym, along with several other Kraków mathematicians (Władysław Ślebodziński, Leon Chwistek, Alfred Rosenblatt and Włodzimierz Stożek) also established a mathematical society, which eventually became the Polish Mathematical Society.[19] The society was officially founded on 2 April 1919. It was also through Steinhaus that Banach met his future wife, Łucja Braus.
Interbellum[edit]
Scottish Café, meeting place of many famous Lwów mathematicians
Steinhaus introduced Banach to academic circles and substantially accelerated his career. After Poland regained independence in 1920, Banach was given an assistantship at the Lwów Polytechnic. Steinhaus' backing also allowed him to receive a doctorate without actually graduating from a university. The doctoral thesis, accepted by King John II Casimir University of Lwów in 1920 [20] and published in 1922,[21] included the basic ideas of functional analysis, which was soon to become an entirely new branch of mathematics. The thesis was widely discussed in academic circles and allowed him in 1922 to become a professor at the Lwów Polytechnic. Initially an assistant to Professor Antoni Łomnicki, in 1927 Banach received his own chair. In 1924 he was also accepted as a member of the Polish Academy of Learning. At the same time, from 1922, Banach also headed the second Chair of Mathematics at University of Lwów.
Young and talented, Banach gathered around him a large group of mathematicians. The group, meeting in the Scottish Café, soon gave birth to the "Lwów School of Mathematics". In 1929 the group began publishing its own journal, Studia Mathematica, devoted primarily to Banach's field of study — functional analysis. Around that time, Banach also began working on his best-known work, the first monograph on the general theory of linear-metric space. First published in Polish in 1931,[22] the following year it was also translated into French and gained wider recognition in European academic circles.[23] The book was also the first in a long series of mathematics monographs edited by Banach and his circle. In 17 June 1924 Banach become a correspondence member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts in Kraków.
World War II[edit]
Banach's grave, Lychakiv Cemetery, Lviv (Lwów, in Polish)
Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Lwów came under the control of the Soviet Union for almost two years. Banach, from 1939 a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, and on good terms with Soviet mathematicians,[8] had to promise to learn Ukrainian to be allowed to keep his chair and continue his academic activities.[24] Following the German takeover of Lwów in 1941 during Operation Barbarossa, all universities were closed and Banach, along with many colleagues and his son, was employed as lice feeder at Professor Rudolf Weigl's Typhus Research Institute. Employment in Weigl's Institute provided many unemployed university professors and their associates protection from random arrest and deportation to Nazi concentration camps.
After the Red Army recaptured Lviv in the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive of 1944, Banach returned to the University and helped re-establish it after the war years. However, because the Soviets were removing Poles from annexed formerly Polish territories, Banach began preparing to leave the city and settle in Kraków, Poland, where he had been promised a chair at the Jagiellonian University.[8] He was also considered a candidate for Minister of Education of Poland.[25] In January 1945, however, he was diagnosed with lung cancer and was allowed to stay in Lwów. He died on 31 August 1945, aged 53. His funeral at the Lychakiv Cemetery was attended by hundreds of people.[25]
Contributions[edit]
Decomposition of a ball into two identical balls - the Banach–Tarski paradox.
Banach's dissertation, completed in 1920 and published in 1922, formally axiomatized the concept of a complete normed vector space and laid the foundations for the area of functional analysis. In this work Banach called such spaces "class E-spaces", but in his 1932 book, Théorie des opérations linéaires, he changed terminology and referred to them as "spaces of type B", which most likely contributed to the subsequent eponymous naming of these spaces after him.[26] The theory of what came to be known as Banach spaces had antecedents in the work of the Hungarian mathematician Frigyes Riesz (published in 1916) and contemporaneous contributions from Hans Hahn and Norbert Wiener.[20] For a brief period in fact, complete normed linear spaces were referred to as "Banach–Wiener" spaces in mathematical literature, based on terminology introduced by Wiener himself. However, because Wiener's work on the topic was limited, the established name became just Banach spaces.[26]
Likewise, Banach's fixed point theorem, based on earlier methods developed by Charles Émile Picard, was included in his dissertation, and was later extended by his students (for example in the Banach–Schauder theorem) and other mathematicians (in particular Brouwer and Poincaré and Birkhoff). The theorem did not require linearity of the space, and applied to any Cauchy space (complete metric space).[20]
The Hahn–Banach theorem, is one of the fundamental theorems of functional analysis.[20]
Stefan Banach - Wikipedia
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Was Nietzsche Polish?
#lifestyle & opinion
Author: Wojciech Oleksiak
Published: Sep 26 2016
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Friedrich Nietzsche claimed to be Polish in writing at least five times in his books. Why on Earth would this icon of philosophy deny being German and instead insist he belonged to a nation that at the time wasn't even on the map?
With Polish history being as turbulent as it is, there are several historical characters whose Polish nationality is questioned by other countries. For instance, most people are completely unaware that both Chopin and Marie Skłodowska-Curie were born and raised in Poland.
There’s also a never-ending Polish-German quarrel over Copernicus’ nationality, even if the concept of ‘nationality’ was quite different at the time he lived and Copernicus would most likely be baffled if forced to declare whether he was Polish or German. However, among all this semi-serious historical deliberation, one case stands out the most.
Namely, Friedrich Nietzsche, whom Poles have never tried to Polonise, declared several times in his writings not only to have had Polish ancestors, but also to feel Polish, deep inside his soul and in his most basic instincts. Verification of this surprising statement presents problems and scholars have looked deeply into the matter. Since Nietzsche’s personal feeling of being Polish is hard to penetrate let’s start with hard fact-checking and begin our investigation…
Nietzsche’s pedigree
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Friedrich Nietzsche was friends with Georg Brandes, a Danish critic and scholar who went down in history as the discoverer of Nietzsche’s genius and the theorist behind the Modern Breakthrough in Scandinavian literature, amongst other things. In 1888 Nietzsche, twelve years before his death and a year before he suffered a mental breakdown, wrote to his friend (in a letter dated 10th April):
My ancestors were Polish nobility. It appears that the type is well rooted despite three ‘German’ mothers. Abroad I customarily pass for a Pole, in fact this winter’s foreign register in Nice lists me as Polish.
Moreover, he tried to prove that his odd-sounding last name was a Germanised version of a Polish one – Nietzky (also spelled Niecki). Brandes, a great admirer of Polish culture (who went as far as declaring Mickiewicz superior to Goethe, Shakespeare and Homer1), bought this story and vastly contributed to its popularisation. It went as far as Poland's most renowned history of philosophy scholar writing about Friedrich Nietzsche as a ‘German of Polish ancestry’2
However, the whole thing seems to be purely a product of Nietzsche’s imagination. Research conducted by heraldry experts as well as Max Oelher, Nietzsche’s close cousin and curator of the Nietzsche archive, revealed that over 200 of Nietzsche’s ancestors, related by both blood and marriage, were German3 The same conclusion is reached in an excerpt of Maria Ziółkowska’s work4
The history of the house of Nietzsche, recorded in parish registers dating back to the 16th century and conveyed in the oral tradition, lists Germans only. They belonged to the mob – peasants, craftsman: farmers, woodworkers, cobblers, pork-butchers (…)
The answer seems unambiguous, then. Friedrich Nietzsche wasn’t Polish at all. But, the other half of the question remains unanswered…
Why did Nietzsche claim to be Polish?
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The answer is: we don’t know. However, there are three hypotheses, all quite possible and not mutually exclusive.
The first one is straightforward: Nietzsche might have wanted to be thought aristocratic. It wasn’t an uncommon desire at the turn of the 19th century and telling cloudy stories about noble ancestors from a non-existent country was a good way of making one’s status unambiguous, and that was all Nietzsche, with his pedigree, could have counted on. Not a very scientific hypothesis, but on the other hand not a very improbable one.
The next hypothesis is based on Nietzsche having a very specific concept of the 16th-century Polish nobleman. In Ecce Homo he wrote:
My ancestors were Polish nobility: I inherited from them my instincts, including perhaps also the liberum veto.
And continued in his autobiographical notes from 1883:
It gave me pleasure to contemplate the right of the Polish nobleman to upset with his simple veto the determinations of a [parliamentary] session; and the Pole Copernicus seemed to have made of this right against the determinations and presentations of other people, the greatest and worthiest use.
The liberum veto (Latin for ‘free veto’) was a parliamentary device in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It granted every member (noblemen only) of the Sejm (the legislative assembly) the right to single-handedly stop the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed since it began. Meanwhile, Nietzsche’s Übermensch (German for Overman, Superman, Hyperman) was supposed to be ultimately free, above all moral constraints, full of disdain and creative powers. Thus, the idea of the liberum veto as a right attributed to a single person, allowing them to entirely change the course of the work of a huge assembly, must have looked to him as a practical emanation of his ideal. Whether Nietzsche was aware of the consequences of the abuse of the liberum veto in the 17th and 18th centuries (which was in fact fatal, contributing to Poland vanishing from the political map of Europe) is not clear – he never referred to any of its vices.
A third possibility is that Nietzsche was so full of hatred toward his compatriots that he could not tolerate being one of them.
I am a Polish nobleman pure sang, in whom there is not the slightest admixture of bad blood, least of all German.
Of Germany, he wrote in Ecce Homo as a nation with ‘every great crime against culture for the last four centuries on their conscience’. R. J. Hollingdale suggests that this odium was instrumental in him never attaining large readership in Germany, despite his growing popularity. He concluded:
(…) <the German nation> had bought only 170 copies of Human, All Too Human during the first years after its publication and whose reaction to the first three volumes of Zarathustra had been so cool that no publisher would risk handling the fourth (…). He had encountered silence and indifference; and his just anger at this treatment toppled over in his last year of sanity into blind unreasoning hatred.
Moreover, Nietzsche was a strict anti-militarist and despised the German monarchy’s imperialistic ambitions, and was greatly disgusted by the anti-Semitism growing rapidly in his homeland. His claiming to be Polish was just another way of putting a thick boundary between him and a nation he didn’t want to have anything in common with, just like openly declaring his love for France (Germany’s greatest enemy at that time), Switzerland, and Italy.
Conclusion
Therefore, we can safely conclude that neither Nietzsche nor his ancestors had anything to do with Poland, and that the saga of the Polish noble house of Nietzky is nothing more than Nietzsche’s eccentric method of manifesting his ideas and… a very rare case in the history of Polish-German relationships.
Was Nietzsche Polish?
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The Art & Arguments of
Marian Bohusz-Szyszko
#visual arts
Author: Antoni Bohdanowicz
Published: Aug 9 2018
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Dubbed ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’, one émigré artist went through hard times only to be hard on others who didn’t live up to his standards. Antoni Bohdanowicz explores Marian Bohusz-Szyszko’s motivations and life story by way of a personal family connection.
It was 1947. My grandmother was waiting for a train at South Kensington tube station. She suddenly she spotted her beret for the first time since the breakout of the war in 1939. It hadn’t been stolen, and it wasn’t anything special. Just a beret. Nevertheless, it’s a peculiar story.
Just after the Germans invaded Poland, they rounded up all of the officers to place them in a prisoner of war camp in Gdynia. My grandmother, a local who took genuine interest in the fate of the troops, went there out of her own free will with no proper assignment. She wanted to take account of who managed to survive, and was asking the soldiers if there was anything they needed. One, an artist who she briefly knew, stepped up and said: ‘My lady, I do have pretty much everything, but my beret went missing in action.’
My grandma didn’t give it a second thought. She took the one she was wearing off her head and said: ‘Would this do?’
It did indeed do, since it accompanied Marian Bohusz-Szyszko throughout World War II, and started a friendship that lasted nearly half a century.
Painter of the 20th century
Portrait of Mrs C Epril, Standing in a Green Dress by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, oil on canvas, signed with initials, source: invaluable.co.uk
Branded by Stanisław Frenkielas ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’, Bohusz-Szyszko lived most of his life in London with Dame Cicely Saunders, the founder of St Christopher’s Hospice. He was a founding member of ‘Grupa 49’ was seen as a mentor to many Polish artists operating in the ‘Emigracja’.
His style was unique. Thick layers with thousands of dabs of paint that weigh down the canvas. The closer you look, the messier the paintings look. The further away you stand from them, the clearer they become. But there was much more to the artist than pure genius of colour. He was in fact a great mathematician, and a pretty sharp art critic. Those two actually offer some very interesting stories concerning his life.
Life in German labour
Oflag Arnswalde II, photo: sw.gov.pl
But let’s get back to the beret and where it had been. Bohusz-Szyszko, who was already a known artist, had ended up in the Oflag Arnswalde II. It is difficult to say that he was lucky, but life in a concentration camp for officers was a less painful experience than what others had to go through in an occupied Poland. The soldiers were even paid by the Germans. Of course, some officers tried to escape and would end up caught or shot by German guards, but in general the conditions in the camp were not too harsh.
This allowed the officers time to do many things. They created their own art, mathematics and literature clubs, they even had their own theatre club. Bohusz-Szyszko, being a man of many talents, was quite active within a few. He was responsible for the scenography at the camp theatre, he also taught painting and drawing. Before the war, the painter taught the two former at a school in Gdynia, but he also taught mathematics there. This was, a subject that he studied in Kraków after graduating from the local Academy of Fine Art.
During one of these lectures on mathematics, Bohusz-Szyszko presented a mathematical challenge that was created before the war. The artist-mathematician had come up with a solution and explained to his fellow officers the reasoning for his answer. When the lecture had ended, the German guard, who was keeping watch to ensure the captured soldiers were not using these classes to draw up escape plans, walked up to Bohusz-Szyszko. It turned out that he himself was a mathematician at one of the German universities, and was in fact the very person who had created that mathematical challenge.
Into exile
Christ crowned with Thorns by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, 1957, source: artway.eu
Bohusz-Szyszko spent almost six years in the PoW camp before being released just ahead of Germany’s surrender. Early in 1945 he moved to Italy, where he joined General Władysław Anders and the Polish Second Army. He was commissioned just outside Rome, where he would spend the next two years.
Apart from military work, he also founded a school of painting in Cecchignola. This was made possible thanks to the intervention of his cousin, General Zygmunt Bohusz-Szyszko, who inspired Anders to create a painting section within the Department of Art and Culture of the Polish Second Army and make Marian the head of it.
But this wasn’t the most important school Bohusz-Szyszko would create. Two years later, Polish troops were given the option to either move to Poland, which was now being run by communists, or relocate to Great Britain. Knowing what the Russian occupant was capable of, the Katyń massacre in particular on their minds, most of these soldiers chose the safer option and chose a life in exile.
This is where we catch up with the beginning of our story and my grandmother. Bohusz-Szyszko was standing on the platform at South Kensington tube station, and my grandmother walked up to him. He didn’t recognise her at first, but it was the beret that helped him remember.
The Polish school of painting
In London, Bohusz-Szyszko founded the Polish School of Painting. It was acknowledged as the new continuator of the traditions of the Painting Department at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (now Vilnius). The school attracted many young Polish artists, and was also a foothold for many renowned ones. Two years later, a group of these artists under the helm of Bohusz-Szyszko would create the ‘Grupa 49’ which was aimed at creating and promoting Polish art.
Just reading his writings on art, you can see that ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’ had a very original take on the subject. He was more about colours and expression, than straightforward form. He would often mention in his works how simple forms don’t attract him and how art is about a lot more.
Works by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko – Image Gallery
1 / 9
He wrote in 1946 in a letter to another painter Józef Jarema:
Not only lily yellow, but blue and pink colours exist, they are the basic, easiest shades – but Eugene Delacroix could create millions of shades – not described by words – just like William Turner – but barely visible. Everything is easy to describe, but you Mr Jarema have to have a vision. (…) I prefer art from nature, I prefer to create in my mind my own paintings that have their own characters, without an order. That is why a Persian or Arab or Chinese will never be called my master – but always Cezanne.
A pugilistic art critic
Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, photo: St Christopher Hospice
Bohusz as pointed out was not only a painter, but a critic. From his writings, you can see that he seemed to find amusement in certain contraries that he would notice and point out. Take for example the debate on abstract art between conservative Catholics and communists. Both groups seemed to accuse each other of being the author of it, and at the same time were saying how bad this kind of art is. Both didn’t hesitate on accusing the other of their wrongdoings to art. This is what the Polish painter and critic pointed out in one of his 1950s articles:
It’s interesting that theoreticians of the fighting wing of Russian communism and many representatives of the Catholic world share the same opinions about abstract art, that it is the opposite of their ideology, and is something that drives their opponents. For communists this abstraction in art is a creation of the reactive, degenerated capitalist bourgeoisie; they believe in socialist realism (please read the latest text of Sokorski, this is the opinion of the communist regime in Poland). For a vast amount of Catholics, these abstract tendencies are a ‘Jewish-communist’ invention that undermines all the values of the Christian civilisation.
Bohusz-Szyszko had many more opinions on art where he would prefer the general idea over neat patterns. In his eyes, an artist didn’t have to be the master of form, he had to be a master of ideas. Due to his strong opinions, many in the London art world looked up to him as if he were a master. In fact, to many artists he was.
Despite this, sometimes his opinions would be a bit harsh towards people who looked up to him as an authority. They’d be seeking his approval, but the painter instead would point out all the flaws, and sometimes in fact be spiteful. Take for instance his letter to the aforementioned Jarema. In it, he starts by taking a small dig at the other painter’s speech, and later how his friend isn’t really a painter:
You announced to me with your nasal voice about your recent discovery – the contour colour, and that a friend of yours [Edward] Matuszczak discovered the cyclical contrast. Despite my recognition of your juvenile enthusiasm, I feel obliged to explain a few things. Poor Matuszczak cannot leave from ‘one-dimensional’ hard based surfaces […] this isn’t painting, this is just a workshop.
In those few words, you get a whole picture of Bohusz-Szyszko. Not afraid of criticising and pointing out in a set direction, but not everyone was capable of accepting his criticism. One funny example of this took place in the POSK, London’s famous Polish cultural centre. After visiting a solo exhibition opening there, Bohusz-Szyszko decided to criticise the artist, a female painter of no significant note. He pointed out to her that her forms were childish, and that she lacked talent...
This was an offence that a fine Polish lady couldn’t accept, and somebody challenged the critic to a duel on behalf of her partner who was absent. Amusingly, this was a common absurdity among the London émigrés – many seemed stuck in the 19th century, despite existing in culturally-revolutionising 1960s London. But the duel never took place, as Bohusz-Szyszko knew the code of honour well – he pointed out that his would-be challenger missed his opportunity as he only had 48 hours from when the offence took place to make the official challenge himself. After that, the offence wasn’t considered an offence anymore, so any duel couldn’t stand.
The final years of Bohusz-Szyszko
Dame Cicely Mary Strode Saunders, 1990, photo: Anne-Katrin Purkiss/FORUM
Now we get to the point where we finally introduce Dame Cicely Saunders, the person known for revolutionising the way Britons approached treating cancer. She met the painter in 1963 in London at an exhibition at the Drian Gallery. The two took a liking to each other and soon became a couple, but it took another 20 years before they married. This was due to the fact that Marian still had an estranged wife in Poland, who didn’t want to move to England after the war with their children.
It was a strange arrangement, being that Bohusz-Szyszko was known to be a devout Catholic. He didn’t accept divorce, but nevertheless entered into a relationship with Saunders. He moved his workshop to her hospice and started creating religiously-inspired paintings – they would decorate the place and offer comfort to its terminally-ill cancer patients.
What was interesting were all the insights that Dame Cicely Saunders brought into the life of somebody who wanted to be received by the Emigracja as some intellectual guru. The Daily Telegraph did a feature article on the founder of St Christopher’s Hospice called A Day in the Life…which described what the typical day of such a person looked like. It had Dame Saunders mention how her husband would enjoy watching westerns. His godson, who was also an avid fan of cowboy movies, brought this up over lunch with him, when visiting him at his studio. Saunders had to quickly react by pacifying the child with a gentle kick, whilst Marian pretended that he didn’t hear the question – an intellectual could never be caught watching such ‘low’ art as a common western...
That story on Bohusz-Szyszko and westerns pretty much sums him up as an artist. He was one wearing many masks, including the one of harsh art critic. It seems as if he genuinely wanted to stand out and have people think: ‘This is Marian, the artist.’ The same goes for his art. He was a master of colours, but his paintings are not exactly the type you always appreciate at first sight. Perhaps this is due to the style, or maybe because he himself is looking for something in his paintings.
Painting by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, photo: Antoni Bohdanowicz
Back in the 1980s whilst painting a portrait of my late mother, he started painting her on one background, and with every meeting the background changed. It presented the mood he had. It ended up with my mother seated in her wedding dress, with all of Marian’s books and pictures behind her. Quite unusual, but it represented the expressive disposition the painter had at the time. It was like most of his paintings: in a certain way abstract, but with an intellectual, spiritual theme.
As a painter, Bohusz-Szyszko was a thought provoker on three fronts: he thinks, he wants you to think he is thinking, and he forces you to think. He was not a painter you will appreciate the first time you look. But the more you get to think of Bohusz, the more times you leave and return, the more you notice, the more you appreciate, and the more it touches you. This is probably why Frenkiel did indeed exclaim that he is the Polish painter of the 20th century.
The Art & Arguments Of Marian Bohusz-Szyszko
Marian Bohusz-Szyszko
#visual arts
Author: Antoni Bohdanowicz
Published: Aug 9 2018
Share
5
Dubbed ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’, one émigré artist went through hard times only to be hard on others who didn’t live up to his standards. Antoni Bohdanowicz explores Marian Bohusz-Szyszko’s motivations and life story by way of a personal family connection.
It was 1947. My grandmother was waiting for a train at South Kensington tube station. She suddenly she spotted her beret for the first time since the breakout of the war in 1939. It hadn’t been stolen, and it wasn’t anything special. Just a beret. Nevertheless, it’s a peculiar story.
Just after the Germans invaded Poland, they rounded up all of the officers to place them in a prisoner of war camp in Gdynia. My grandmother, a local who took genuine interest in the fate of the troops, went there out of her own free will with no proper assignment. She wanted to take account of who managed to survive, and was asking the soldiers if there was anything they needed. One, an artist who she briefly knew, stepped up and said: ‘My lady, I do have pretty much everything, but my beret went missing in action.’
My grandma didn’t give it a second thought. She took the one she was wearing off her head and said: ‘Would this do?’
It did indeed do, since it accompanied Marian Bohusz-Szyszko throughout World War II, and started a friendship that lasted nearly half a century.
Painter of the 20th century
Portrait of Mrs C Epril, Standing in a Green Dress by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, oil on canvas, signed with initials, source: invaluable.co.uk
Branded by Stanisław Frenkielas ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’, Bohusz-Szyszko lived most of his life in London with Dame Cicely Saunders, the founder of St Christopher’s Hospice. He was a founding member of ‘Grupa 49’ was seen as a mentor to many Polish artists operating in the ‘Emigracja’.
His style was unique. Thick layers with thousands of dabs of paint that weigh down the canvas. The closer you look, the messier the paintings look. The further away you stand from them, the clearer they become. But there was much more to the artist than pure genius of colour. He was in fact a great mathematician, and a pretty sharp art critic. Those two actually offer some very interesting stories concerning his life.
Life in German labour
Oflag Arnswalde II, photo: sw.gov.pl
But let’s get back to the beret and where it had been. Bohusz-Szyszko, who was already a known artist, had ended up in the Oflag Arnswalde II. It is difficult to say that he was lucky, but life in a concentration camp for officers was a less painful experience than what others had to go through in an occupied Poland. The soldiers were even paid by the Germans. Of course, some officers tried to escape and would end up caught or shot by German guards, but in general the conditions in the camp were not too harsh.
This allowed the officers time to do many things. They created their own art, mathematics and literature clubs, they even had their own theatre club. Bohusz-Szyszko, being a man of many talents, was quite active within a few. He was responsible for the scenography at the camp theatre, he also taught painting and drawing. Before the war, the painter taught the two former at a school in Gdynia, but he also taught mathematics there. This was, a subject that he studied in Kraków after graduating from the local Academy of Fine Art.
During one of these lectures on mathematics, Bohusz-Szyszko presented a mathematical challenge that was created before the war. The artist-mathematician had come up with a solution and explained to his fellow officers the reasoning for his answer. When the lecture had ended, the German guard, who was keeping watch to ensure the captured soldiers were not using these classes to draw up escape plans, walked up to Bohusz-Szyszko. It turned out that he himself was a mathematician at one of the German universities, and was in fact the very person who had created that mathematical challenge.
Into exile
Christ crowned with Thorns by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, 1957, source: artway.eu
Bohusz-Szyszko spent almost six years in the PoW camp before being released just ahead of Germany’s surrender. Early in 1945 he moved to Italy, where he joined General Władysław Anders and the Polish Second Army. He was commissioned just outside Rome, where he would spend the next two years.
Apart from military work, he also founded a school of painting in Cecchignola. This was made possible thanks to the intervention of his cousin, General Zygmunt Bohusz-Szyszko, who inspired Anders to create a painting section within the Department of Art and Culture of the Polish Second Army and make Marian the head of it.
But this wasn’t the most important school Bohusz-Szyszko would create. Two years later, Polish troops were given the option to either move to Poland, which was now being run by communists, or relocate to Great Britain. Knowing what the Russian occupant was capable of, the Katyń massacre in particular on their minds, most of these soldiers chose the safer option and chose a life in exile.
This is where we catch up with the beginning of our story and my grandmother. Bohusz-Szyszko was standing on the platform at South Kensington tube station, and my grandmother walked up to him. He didn’t recognise her at first, but it was the beret that helped him remember.
The Polish school of painting
In London, Bohusz-Szyszko founded the Polish School of Painting. It was acknowledged as the new continuator of the traditions of the Painting Department at the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (now Vilnius). The school attracted many young Polish artists, and was also a foothold for many renowned ones. Two years later, a group of these artists under the helm of Bohusz-Szyszko would create the ‘Grupa 49’ which was aimed at creating and promoting Polish art.
Just reading his writings on art, you can see that ‘the Polish painter of the 20th century’ had a very original take on the subject. He was more about colours and expression, than straightforward form. He would often mention in his works how simple forms don’t attract him and how art is about a lot more.
Works by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko – Image Gallery
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He wrote in 1946 in a letter to another painter Józef Jarema:
Not only lily yellow, but blue and pink colours exist, they are the basic, easiest shades – but Eugene Delacroix could create millions of shades – not described by words – just like William Turner – but barely visible. Everything is easy to describe, but you Mr Jarema have to have a vision. (…) I prefer art from nature, I prefer to create in my mind my own paintings that have their own characters, without an order. That is why a Persian or Arab or Chinese will never be called my master – but always Cezanne.
A pugilistic art critic
Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, photo: St Christopher Hospice
Bohusz as pointed out was not only a painter, but a critic. From his writings, you can see that he seemed to find amusement in certain contraries that he would notice and point out. Take for example the debate on abstract art between conservative Catholics and communists. Both groups seemed to accuse each other of being the author of it, and at the same time were saying how bad this kind of art is. Both didn’t hesitate on accusing the other of their wrongdoings to art. This is what the Polish painter and critic pointed out in one of his 1950s articles:
It’s interesting that theoreticians of the fighting wing of Russian communism and many representatives of the Catholic world share the same opinions about abstract art, that it is the opposite of their ideology, and is something that drives their opponents. For communists this abstraction in art is a creation of the reactive, degenerated capitalist bourgeoisie; they believe in socialist realism (please read the latest text of Sokorski, this is the opinion of the communist regime in Poland). For a vast amount of Catholics, these abstract tendencies are a ‘Jewish-communist’ invention that undermines all the values of the Christian civilisation.
Bohusz-Szyszko had many more opinions on art where he would prefer the general idea over neat patterns. In his eyes, an artist didn’t have to be the master of form, he had to be a master of ideas. Due to his strong opinions, many in the London art world looked up to him as if he were a master. In fact, to many artists he was.
Despite this, sometimes his opinions would be a bit harsh towards people who looked up to him as an authority. They’d be seeking his approval, but the painter instead would point out all the flaws, and sometimes in fact be spiteful. Take for instance his letter to the aforementioned Jarema. In it, he starts by taking a small dig at the other painter’s speech, and later how his friend isn’t really a painter:
You announced to me with your nasal voice about your recent discovery – the contour colour, and that a friend of yours [Edward] Matuszczak discovered the cyclical contrast. Despite my recognition of your juvenile enthusiasm, I feel obliged to explain a few things. Poor Matuszczak cannot leave from ‘one-dimensional’ hard based surfaces […] this isn’t painting, this is just a workshop.
In those few words, you get a whole picture of Bohusz-Szyszko. Not afraid of criticising and pointing out in a set direction, but not everyone was capable of accepting his criticism. One funny example of this took place in the POSK, London’s famous Polish cultural centre. After visiting a solo exhibition opening there, Bohusz-Szyszko decided to criticise the artist, a female painter of no significant note. He pointed out to her that her forms were childish, and that she lacked talent...
This was an offence that a fine Polish lady couldn’t accept, and somebody challenged the critic to a duel on behalf of her partner who was absent. Amusingly, this was a common absurdity among the London émigrés – many seemed stuck in the 19th century, despite existing in culturally-revolutionising 1960s London. But the duel never took place, as Bohusz-Szyszko knew the code of honour well – he pointed out that his would-be challenger missed his opportunity as he only had 48 hours from when the offence took place to make the official challenge himself. After that, the offence wasn’t considered an offence anymore, so any duel couldn’t stand.
The final years of Bohusz-Szyszko
Dame Cicely Mary Strode Saunders, 1990, photo: Anne-Katrin Purkiss/FORUM
Now we get to the point where we finally introduce Dame Cicely Saunders, the person known for revolutionising the way Britons approached treating cancer. She met the painter in 1963 in London at an exhibition at the Drian Gallery. The two took a liking to each other and soon became a couple, but it took another 20 years before they married. This was due to the fact that Marian still had an estranged wife in Poland, who didn’t want to move to England after the war with their children.
It was a strange arrangement, being that Bohusz-Szyszko was known to be a devout Catholic. He didn’t accept divorce, but nevertheless entered into a relationship with Saunders. He moved his workshop to her hospice and started creating religiously-inspired paintings – they would decorate the place and offer comfort to its terminally-ill cancer patients.
What was interesting were all the insights that Dame Cicely Saunders brought into the life of somebody who wanted to be received by the Emigracja as some intellectual guru. The Daily Telegraph did a feature article on the founder of St Christopher’s Hospice called A Day in the Life…which described what the typical day of such a person looked like. It had Dame Saunders mention how her husband would enjoy watching westerns. His godson, who was also an avid fan of cowboy movies, brought this up over lunch with him, when visiting him at his studio. Saunders had to quickly react by pacifying the child with a gentle kick, whilst Marian pretended that he didn’t hear the question – an intellectual could never be caught watching such ‘low’ art as a common western...
That story on Bohusz-Szyszko and westerns pretty much sums him up as an artist. He was one wearing many masks, including the one of harsh art critic. It seems as if he genuinely wanted to stand out and have people think: ‘This is Marian, the artist.’ The same goes for his art. He was a master of colours, but his paintings are not exactly the type you always appreciate at first sight. Perhaps this is due to the style, or maybe because he himself is looking for something in his paintings.
Painting by Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, photo: Antoni Bohdanowicz
Back in the 1980s whilst painting a portrait of my late mother, he started painting her on one background, and with every meeting the background changed. It presented the mood he had. It ended up with my mother seated in her wedding dress, with all of Marian’s books and pictures behind her. Quite unusual, but it represented the expressive disposition the painter had at the time. It was like most of his paintings: in a certain way abstract, but with an intellectual, spiritual theme.
As a painter, Bohusz-Szyszko was a thought provoker on three fronts: he thinks, he wants you to think he is thinking, and he forces you to think. He was not a painter you will appreciate the first time you look. But the more you get to think of Bohusz, the more times you leave and return, the more you notice, the more you appreciate, and the more it touches you. This is probably why Frenkiel did indeed exclaim that he is the Polish painter of the 20th century.
The Art & Arguments Of Marian Bohusz-Szyszko
SobieskiSavedEurope
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The polish invention – vertical wind power stations - renewable energy sources’ future Grażyna Paulina Wójcik Department of Production Management and Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Science, Nowoursynowska Str. 164, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland Accepted for publication on 21st February 2015 The author has analyzed the world's first vertical wind turbine. It has the following advantages: it is quiet, safe and efficient, and most importantly, does not produce environmentally dangerous ultrasound. The wind power plant without windmills was invented and patented by Waldemar Piskorz, the Pole. The project is carried out in Poland by the municipality of Kodeń. The framework of a vertical wind turbine is constructed out of a 30 meter high tower consisting of three columns of wind turbines with a total capacity of 0.5 MW, which withstands winds pressure up to 200 km / h. The framework is stable and does not cause vibrations. The tower can be extended by more segments, increasing its power. A vertical wind turbine is significantly more efficient than conventional fans because it works at low wind force and irrespective of its direction. The vertical turbine in Kodeń wind farm is the first of the kind in the world. Both individual customers, because the design/framework can be mounted on buildings, and large industrial plants will benefit from this innovative Polish technology solution. Wind farms can also be set up because the towers can be upgraded up to 60 meters in height. Such a wind turbine does not produce noise or odors. It's quiet and clean. This is a better solution than, for example a biogas. The vertical wind farm located in Kodeń is a unique design/framework completely harmless to the environment. The technical parameters are promising. The design allows for achieving high efficiency without the necessity to build high masts and enables folding into functional segments of the object by placing one on the other. The manufacturer estimates the life of the installation, even up to 70 years. Financially a construction of an installation of a 1 MW is alike to a traditional windmill and photovoltaic farm. However, in the case of production capacity, it appears that the rotation of the vertical turbine can produce up to 3.6 times more electricity than photovoltaic farm and nearly 50% more than traditional windmills.
https://www.nscj.co.uk/ecm3/sessions/181_GrazynaWojcik.pdf
https://www.nscj.co.uk/ecm3/sessions/181_GrazynaWojcik.pdf
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Glucose testing without the finger-prick
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??
iSULIN is worn on the forearm almost like any other ordinary telemetric band. But this device is a far cry from the typical electronic gadgets used by marathon or Sunday runners and which usually only measure blood pressure and, sometimes, oxygen saturation. Designed by five engineers at the Military Institute of Technology (WAT), the device can “look” inside the body through the skin and measure the level of glucose in the blood—without pricking fingertips or using control strips or pads.
This unique technology relies on photoplethysmography which monitors changing blood flows in peripheral vessels located just beneath the skin. This method involves measuring the absorption of light by tissues: a sensor projects light onto the skin that is reflected off tissues and returns to the device. Mariusz Chmielewski PhD Eng. of WAT’s IT Systems Institute and the leader of the inventors’ team, explains that their reflection method is harder to analyse than other solutions tested worldwide, but it is more user-friendly for the patient.
The signal is then transferred to a smartphone app for it to be processed and computed by special algorithms to indicate a blood sugar level. It is essential to ensure that the system is properly calibrated because the analysed changes are very subtle and form an individual pattern in each person. Accordingly, to make iSULIN work properly, its users should perform 20-40 parallel non-invasive tests as well as pricks (for comparison) over a few days. After this time the glucose metre will have “learnt” how to analyse health parameters of an individual and will have created his or her profile, which will enable regular testing.
iSULIN isn’t only about tests, it also offers an array of tips and recommendations for diabetics. The app can suggest the right diet or remind—with a smartphone alert—that it’s time for a meal or for another dosage of drugs. Its users will also be able to learn about the relation between changes in their blood sugar levels and their lifestyles, thanks to parallel readings of blood pressure and oxygen saturation.
“iSULIN is meant not only for patients, but also for medical practitioners and dieticians,” Chmielewski tells Poland.pl. “We want our specialists to be able to have access to the medical history of the patients and to act on such data, selecting treatment and a diet that will be right for the patient. The information stored on a server will be accessible to both patients and their doctors. Now we’re building a server infrastructure that would support such demands,” he adds.
In a life threatening situation, when the system records excessive blood sugar levels and other disturbing readings, iSULIN will automatically alert a predetermined person or the appropriate rescue services.
Glucose testing without the finger-prick
600
??
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- Glucose testing without the finger-prick
iSULIN is worn on the forearm almost like any other ordinary telemetric band. But this device is a far cry from the typical electronic gadgets used by marathon or Sunday runners and which usually only measure blood pressure and, sometimes, oxygen saturation. Designed by five engineers at the Military Institute of Technology (WAT), the device can “look” inside the body through the skin and measure the level of glucose in the blood—without pricking fingertips or using control strips or pads.
This unique technology relies on photoplethysmography which monitors changing blood flows in peripheral vessels located just beneath the skin. This method involves measuring the absorption of light by tissues: a sensor projects light onto the skin that is reflected off tissues and returns to the device. Mariusz Chmielewski PhD Eng. of WAT’s IT Systems Institute and the leader of the inventors’ team, explains that their reflection method is harder to analyse than other solutions tested worldwide, but it is more user-friendly for the patient.
The signal is then transferred to a smartphone app for it to be processed and computed by special algorithms to indicate a blood sugar level. It is essential to ensure that the system is properly calibrated because the analysed changes are very subtle and form an individual pattern in each person. Accordingly, to make iSULIN work properly, its users should perform 20-40 parallel non-invasive tests as well as pricks (for comparison) over a few days. After this time the glucose metre will have “learnt” how to analyse health parameters of an individual and will have created his or her profile, which will enable regular testing.
iSULIN isn’t only about tests, it also offers an array of tips and recommendations for diabetics. The app can suggest the right diet or remind—with a smartphone alert—that it’s time for a meal or for another dosage of drugs. Its users will also be able to learn about the relation between changes in their blood sugar levels and their lifestyles, thanks to parallel readings of blood pressure and oxygen saturation.
“iSULIN is meant not only for patients, but also for medical practitioners and dieticians,” Chmielewski tells Poland.pl. “We want our specialists to be able to have access to the medical history of the patients and to act on such data, selecting treatment and a diet that will be right for the patient. The information stored on a server will be accessible to both patients and their doctors. Now we’re building a server infrastructure that would support such demands,” he adds.
In a life threatening situation, when the system records excessive blood sugar levels and other disturbing readings, iSULIN will automatically alert a predetermined person or the appropriate rescue services.
Glucose testing without the finger-prick
toobfreak
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I'm part Polish (so I've been told, their borders changed so much I might be part Austrian), and I've never been bothered by the jokes nor do I need defended. Jokes are just jokes. Has any ethnic population been more slandered? Yep. I think so. What about the Jews? Millions of Jews died at the hands of jewish hate. Far as I can tell, no one has yet died from a pollack joke.
SobieskiSavedEurope
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Polish opera’s success in New York
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Mariusz Treliński is the first Pole to direct at the Metropolitan Opera. Following the success of his production of “Iolanta/Bluebeard’s Castle,” Met Opera chief Peter Gelb invited him to inaugurate its next season. “I would not want my work to be associated with my most recent success at the Met. What I have been doing all along represents a sequence of many important events,” Mariusz Treliński tells Polska.pl.
The 2016 season will be inaugurated in September with Wagner’s “Tristan und Isolde” directed by the Pole. The director of the New York Opera invited him to direct the opera that will open the new season after a dress rehearsal of the double bill “Iolanta/Bluebeard’s Castle.” The production, which premiered at the end of January, won critical acclaim in the US. Anthony Tommasini of the New York Times praised Anna Netrebko who sang Iolanta and Piotr Beczała’s role of Vaudemont, noting that a few days’ delay caused by a blizzard warning may have “undermined the energy” of the performance . Nadja Michael’s part as Judith was also acclaimed.
A reformer of the Polish opera, who enriched traditional and somewhat anachronic pieces with elements of ballet, video installations, beautiful stage design and references to contemporaneity, regards the offer from the Metropolitan Opera as a crowning of many years of his work. He began to change Teatr Wielki-Polish National Opera in 1999 when he started to work there. His international career was launched by the success of the production of “Madame Butterfly” in the Washington National Opera in 2001. “Since then I have had the opportunity to work with the greatest operatic artists, such as the signers Anna Netrebko or Plácido Domingo, conductors of such rank as Daniel Barenboim, Valery Gergiev, Lorin Maazel or Carlo Rizzi. For me, personally, it has been the most important 15 years which have led to the decision to invite me to direct at the Metropolitan Opera,” Treliński tells Polska.pl.
Karolina Kowalska, Polska.pl: In the Łodz Film School you heard “Whatever you do, you will always remain a Polish director,” which supposedly meant that world stages are beyond the reach of Poles.
Mariusz Treliński*: This sentence, said half-jokingly by professors, echoed a depressive reality. During martial law, the last bar closed at 9 pm, and the only entertainment was offered by “Casanova,” a night club located behind metal doors, where visitors could get stabbed in the back with a knife. So we used to stay inside the student dormitory and engage in endless discussions going on until the wee hours. In the film school we watched the phenomenal films by Antonioni and Visconti, while outside the school we were confronted by drab existence of despair. When I read Lem’s Solaris for the first time I saw an inscription at the bottom of the text which read: Zakopane, June 1959 – June 1960. It made me realise that “it can be done,” in those depressing times when art was being created to escape and transcended daily existence. Many years later, I staged “Andrea Chénier” in Washington DC. The performance was based on the concept that an individual fate can be presented first against the backdrop of the French Revolution, and then against totalitarian regimes, including Fascism and Communism. Foreign reviewers highlighted the fact that the theme was depicted from the perspective of a man who has been stung by Polish history. It made me realise that I carry the Polishness that I had wanted to escape from inside myself. Today, to be a director from Poland means something else. From a country with an inferiority complex, we have become – I do not hesitate to use the term – a cultural powerhouse. It suffices to recall the recent accomplishments by Piotr Beczała, Mariusz Kwiecień and Aleksandra Kurzak, not to mention Małgośka Szumowska’s films or Paweł Pawlikowski’s Oscar-winning Ida.
One cannot ignore the latest success, which we owe to you. Your double bill “Iolanta/Bluebear’s Castle” which you directed had its premiere at the Metropolitan Opera in January.
I wouldn’t want my accomplishments to be associated only to my last success at the Met. My work so far represents a sequence of many important events. I vividly recall the time I came to Teatr Wielki in 1999 and directed “Madame Butterfly.” At that time I was an outsider, a man of cinema who had his own ideas and concepts about the ideal opera and the power of its complexity. It was indeed the beginning of my journey, which in the future would take me to collaborate with the world’s most outstanding opera artists. The success of “Madame Butterfly” at the Washington National Opera, where I was invited by Plácido Domingo, was a breakthrough moment that changed my life forever. Since then I had the opportunity to work with the most acclaimed singers, such as Netrebko, Beczała, Domingo, and conductors of such rank as Barenboim, Gergiev, Nagano, Maazel or Rizzi. The premiere at the Met is, I would say, a crowning of my fifteen-plus years of work. I prefer to see it as a journey.
“Iolanta/Bluebear’s Castle”
The audience at the Met loudly applauded the co-production of the New York and Warsaw National Operas. It praised the interesting combination of Piotr Czajkowski’s “Iolanta” composed in 1891 with Bela Bartok’s “Bluebeard’s Castle” written in 1911. Mariusz Trelinski believes that Czajkowski’s last opera and Bartok’s work have a common theme of male domination. The title “Iolanta” is a blind princess who lives under the overprotective control of her father. She begins to see the world once she experiences love – in a metaphorical and literal sense. She regains sight, but the real world compared to her imaginary one appears bleak and discouraging. By becoming a wife, she enters the society. Iolanta from the “Bluebear’s Castle” takes the opposite path. The fourth wife of the prince leaves her family happiness and despite warnings enters the rooms that hide the ruler’s three previous wives. Opening the seven rooms one by one, she plunges into darkness and symbolically loses her sight. According to Treliński, both works actually present one woman at different stages of life.
Opera is a peculiar phenomenon, a hybrid genre that combines sound and movement with a great dose of artificiality. The fact that we will be telling a story by singing is a wholly artificial assumption that I see as a challenge posed to it literalness. I see the opera as a total, interdisciplinary and multimedia work that crosses the boundaries of the opera itself - Mariusz Treliński
You are the first Pole who has been asked to open the 2016/2017 season with a performance of “Tristan und Isolde” at the New York Opera.
For me, to direct Wagner’s “Tristan und Isolde” is a dream come true. I have thought about staging this piece, which is a milestone in opera’s history, for a long time. But then I abandoned the thought, waiting for the right moment. I have always been fascinated by the music of Wagner who in his musical dramas picks up threads which I find important, such as attempting to transcend the real and imaginary, the question of love and death that Wagner expresses using the word Liebestod, which for me means a border moment from the combination of these words; finally the issue of time, the building of extensive swaths of time, since many of Wagner’s music dramas last over four hours.
Do you regard the Met and Teatr Wielki co-production offer as your personal success or the success of the Polish opera as a whole?
No doubt it is Teatr Wielki-Polish Opera House’s success, with which I have identified myself since my 1999 debut. By suggesting a new take on the opera, I have succeeded in turning it into an important place that notices and dialogues with contemporariness. Our opera has begun to attract the best soloists, conductors, modern photographers, movie and fashion figures, designers. By changing the technology in the opera house and building increasingly complicated and technically advanced stage designs, I have succeeded in creating quality of international renown. Thanks to this quality, I was able to work on several co-productions with the Salzburg Festival, Covent Garden, Baden-Baden, La Monnaie, the English National Opera, Met and many others. Those places were not within my reach still a few years back. So when I say that I am a Polish director I express satisfaction also with the change in our mentality.
What has caused this change?
The opera was often an element of cultural blackmail. The prevailing belief was that going to the opera was in good taste, but it wasn’t clear why. It was an anachronic place, where old aesthetics, banal thinking and bourgeois taste reigned. But you cannot talk anyone into art – it is alive or dead and by talking people into it you deprive it of any sense. The same is true about the opera, which cannot be dead and confined to old schemes and rules. It should not be constrained by rigid frames of the past or be deaf to the changing reality around it. It has to correspond to the changing aesthetic currents, reap the benefits of technological progress. In short , it must be attuned to the spirit of the times. The opera has to be attractive, but what I find attractive does not necessarily have to be so for the spectator. I think that Ida is a very intriguing film, but it left many people cold. In my stage designs, I dialogue with contemporary mentality of the spectator, find works created in another time and try to transcribe them into contemporary language.
How do you go about it?
First of all I try to remember that if you take a work – a historical milestone – and direct it according to its stage directions, you create a dead formula that has nothing to do with contemporary reality. People say that you have to be “seen” at such plays. No one has to be persuaded to see my productions, because I give them a modern quality and in modernity I discover the living spring. In my early stage productions I veered away from realism toward abstract realisations. I was fascinated by the artificiality of the opera, which I highlighted and glorified. After a while, I felt I was no longer happy with this approach. I began to experiment, to build ultra-realistic situations, where protagonists were shown against the backdrop of daily existence. Yet I knew that I was looking for something more, a certain tension in the confrontation of these two attitudes, for the moment of transcendence. Since then I have been intrigued by the impossible, in other words showing everyday human behaviour in unreal situations. In the “Bluebear’s Castle” a specific woman abandons her previous “normal” and settled life and enters the world of mystery, an unreal man’s kingdom, whose existence raises many doubts. However, one should remember that the opera, like any other art, is not for everyone. There were many outstanding artists who hated it for its intellectual shallowness and sentimentalism, and there were many others who were enraptured by it.
Many people go to see your productions because they say they are beautiful.
Beauty is a relative concept. There is beauty in rapture, drama and truth, which fascinate. Presumably it is about the attractiveness of my productions which are aligned with the rhythm of our times. In our times we are dealing with a polyphony of information. It has been proven that the brain can receive about 10 parallel signals. It is a time of collages, multimedia projects. Hence the opera has rely on eclecticism, becoming a mixture of cinema, ballet, video art and fashion. Opera is a peculiar phenomenon, a hybrid genre that combines sound and movement with a great dose of artificiality. The fact that we will be telling a story by singing is a wholly artificial assumption that I see as a challenge posed to it literalness. I see the opera as a total, interdisciplinary and multimedia work that crosses the boundaries of the opera itself. I hope that I had succeeded in doing just that in the “Bluebeard’s Castle”. In the libretto written by Béla Balázs one detects boredom with the traditional opera form. Balázs, an outstanding film critic, showed how to combine operatic tradition with the language of the cinema to find a new type of performance, which would be spared literality so characteristic of the opera. As early as in the prologue, a question is asked: are we inside or outside, are we looking at the stage or into ourselves? We are invited early on to challenge the limits of the opera with its clear separation of the stage from the audience. No doubt it comes from the cinema which draws us in more than other forms of art, blurring the boundaries between our interior and what we are watching. Although I have to admit that frames and boundaries imposed on us by opera with its division into acts, the stage and the orchestra pit is for me a source of tension and confrontation with imagination. I have always been fascinated by crossing the opera’s boundaries. Coming back to my productions, not all of them are trying to be attractive. I am now working on a production of Thomas Ades’s “Powder Her Face” which is a very perverse opera written in 1995 full of provocation, explicit language and detail, contemporary, an anti-opera actually. Teatr Wielki-National Opera has to present the whole spectrum of modern art, not only its traditional variety.
KAROLINA KOWALKSA
*Mariusz Treliński – Polish opera, film and theatre director, born in Warsaw on March 28 1962. The artistic director of Teatr Wielki – National Opera in Warsaw. He graduated from the Lodz Film School where he studied directing. His debut was a TV film entitled The Rump of a Great Whale. He directed his first opera in 1996 roku. It was a one act opera by Elżbieta Sikora L'arrache-coeur adopted from Boris Vian’s prose, and was also staged at the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Since 1999, he has been cooperating with the set designer Boris Kudlička. The success of his production of “Madame Butterfly” at the Washington National Opera in 2001 began his international career. He enriches traditional and somewhat anachronic productions with elements of ballet, video installation, beautiful stage design and references to modernit
Polish opera’s success in New York
SobieskiSavedEurope
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Jerzy Rudlicki
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Jerzy Rudlicki (14 March 1893 – 18 August 1977) was a Polish Pilot and Aerospace Engineer. Best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail(Polish Patent #15938), which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. Rudlicki was also the Chief Engineer of the Polish Plage i Laśkiewicz works, later known as LWS in Interwar Poland.
Contents
Rudlicki was born on 14 March 1893 in Odessa. In the years (1909-1911) he constructed seven gilders which resulted in Rudlicki receiving a diploma with honors from the Odessa National Polytechnic University. In 1914, Rudlicki competed officer school and pilot school in Simferopol. Rudlicki served as pilot in the Russian Air Force and in 1917 fought for the Blue Army (Poland) in France under General Józef Haller. Rudlicki also fought in the Polish–Soviet Warin 1920 which resulted in Rudlicki being awarded the Cross of Valor in 1921 for his heroics as a pilot during World War I.[1]
Interwar Period in Poland[edit]
In the years (1921-1922), Rudlicki studied at the École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace, from which Rudlicki received his Engineering degree.[2] From (1922-1925), Rudlicki worked at the Institute of Aviation, Warsaw as head of the experimental laboratory. In 1926, Rudlicki became the Chief Engineer for Polish Aerospace Manufacturer Plage i Laśkiewicz located in Lublin, Poland. Throughout his career as Chief Engineer of Plage i Laśkiewicz, he supervised the construction of both civilian and military aircraft most notably the: Lublin R-VIII, and R IX Torpedo Bomber.[3] During the Interwar Period, Rudlicki was also credited for creating the first retractable landing gear in Poland. In the years (1928-1931) he worked on perfecting the V-tail design which was patented in 1930 as (Polish Patent #15938) and tested on a modified Hanriot HD.28 in 1931. One of the most notable examples of the V-tail design can be seen on the F-117 Nighthawk.
Jerzy Rudlicki - Wikipedia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Jerzy Rudlicki (14 March 1893 – 18 August 1977) was a Polish Pilot and Aerospace Engineer. Best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail(Polish Patent #15938), which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. Rudlicki was also the Chief Engineer of the Polish Plage i Laśkiewicz works, later known as LWS in Interwar Poland.
Contents
- 1Early life and military career
- 2Interwar Period in Poland
- 3WWII Period and Post WWII Period
- 4References
- 5External links
Rudlicki was born on 14 March 1893 in Odessa. In the years (1909-1911) he constructed seven gilders which resulted in Rudlicki receiving a diploma with honors from the Odessa National Polytechnic University. In 1914, Rudlicki competed officer school and pilot school in Simferopol. Rudlicki served as pilot in the Russian Air Force and in 1917 fought for the Blue Army (Poland) in France under General Józef Haller. Rudlicki also fought in the Polish–Soviet Warin 1920 which resulted in Rudlicki being awarded the Cross of Valor in 1921 for his heroics as a pilot during World War I.[1]
Interwar Period in Poland[edit]
In the years (1921-1922), Rudlicki studied at the École nationale supérieure de l'aéronautique et de l'espace, from which Rudlicki received his Engineering degree.[2] From (1922-1925), Rudlicki worked at the Institute of Aviation, Warsaw as head of the experimental laboratory. In 1926, Rudlicki became the Chief Engineer for Polish Aerospace Manufacturer Plage i Laśkiewicz located in Lublin, Poland. Throughout his career as Chief Engineer of Plage i Laśkiewicz, he supervised the construction of both civilian and military aircraft most notably the: Lublin R-VIII, and R IX Torpedo Bomber.[3] During the Interwar Period, Rudlicki was also credited for creating the first retractable landing gear in Poland. In the years (1928-1931) he worked on perfecting the V-tail design which was patented in 1930 as (Polish Patent #15938) and tested on a modified Hanriot HD.28 in 1931. One of the most notable examples of the V-tail design can be seen on the F-117 Nighthawk.
Jerzy Rudlicki - Wikipedia
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Millions of Poles were killed in WW2, WW1, the Partitions of Poland, and the Deluge.
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Forest Park has its own game changer in the field of lasers. Bartosz Djanowski has invented a revolutionary new laser for cleaning cultural objects. It's portable, plugs into any outlet in the world and is extremely precise. To develop and market this device, Djanowski founded G. C. Laser Systems Inc. The initials stand for "game changer."
Djanowski recently conducted courses in the use of his laser at the Conservation of Sculpture and Objects Studio (CSOS) at 900 Des Plaines Ave. He is vice director and his father, Andrzej Djanowski, is the founder. His first class attracted a dozen conservators from Canada, California, New York, Chicago and the state of Washington.
It was a three-day training program that used the studio for classroom purposes and the nearby Forest Home Cemetery for practical hands-on training. The students cleaned the granite base of the cemetery monument marking the graves of Thomas and Beatrice Hartman.
"It was a win-win to clean the monument," Djanowski said. "It was practical and useful for the participants, and they can put it on their resumes. Plus, the cemetery received high-end treatment of a monument, at no cost."
Djanowski worked with local historian Mark Rogovin to select "candidates" for cleaning. They concentrated on monuments in the vicinity of the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument and Radical Row. They cleared the project with the cemetery director, Deborah Clark, and Djanowski wrote letters to the families of the deceased to obtain permission.
"The nice thing about cemetery projects is that we can complete the cleaning in one day," Djanowski said. "These are historic, outdoor, exposed stones, in a prominent location."
Djanowski has put in 14-15 years fixing lasers all over the world. He said that his new invention was "the result of over a decade of frustration and inconvenience with lasers."
It took him 10 years of research and development, using a revolutionary design concept, to perfect the device. Most lasers used a linear pattern but his uses a circular scan pattern. It cleans twice the area and is more consistent, with "no hot spots."
Djanowski was able to design and build his laser, despite having no formal engineering training. He has had an extensive education, though, earning his master's in art conservation from the University of Delaware. He also studied art, culture and conservation in Poland and spent a year studying laser applications at the Military University of Technology in Warsaw. It helps that he is fluent in Polish. Before that, he earned his B.A. in art history and economics at Northwestern University.
After building his prototype and putting it through extensive testing, Djanowski used it to clean Cleopatra's Needle in Central Park in 2014. The obelisk was a gift from Egypt. It is 70 feet tall and 3,500 years old.
In 2011, Egyptian officials threatened to take it back, because it was being neglected. It had a layer of dirt from decades of burning fossil fuels. Conservators used lasers to give it a cleaning that will last for 500 years.
"There were seven lasers on the site," Djanowski said, "And my one laser did 65 percent of the project. It was reliable and productive and out-performed everything else."
He explained that the laser cleans the contaminated layer by "exciting the molecules and breaking them down."
It vaporizes carbon, grime and corrosion.
"It has an extraction vacuum, so it doesn't contaminate the environment," Djanowski said.
There is a big demand for laser cleaning and Djanowski teaches the technique to employees, interns and colleagues at CSOS. They have gotten commissions all over the world, including cleaning the façade of the U.S. Supreme Court building, the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa and French Corbels at the Art Institute.
"There are many soot-covered treasures all over the world, due to auto traffic," Djanowski said
Forest Parker at the forefront of laser technology
Djanowski recently conducted courses in the use of his laser at the Conservation of Sculpture and Objects Studio (CSOS) at 900 Des Plaines Ave. He is vice director and his father, Andrzej Djanowski, is the founder. His first class attracted a dozen conservators from Canada, California, New York, Chicago and the state of Washington.
It was a three-day training program that used the studio for classroom purposes and the nearby Forest Home Cemetery for practical hands-on training. The students cleaned the granite base of the cemetery monument marking the graves of Thomas and Beatrice Hartman.
"It was a win-win to clean the monument," Djanowski said. "It was practical and useful for the participants, and they can put it on their resumes. Plus, the cemetery received high-end treatment of a monument, at no cost."
Djanowski worked with local historian Mark Rogovin to select "candidates" for cleaning. They concentrated on monuments in the vicinity of the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument and Radical Row. They cleared the project with the cemetery director, Deborah Clark, and Djanowski wrote letters to the families of the deceased to obtain permission.
"The nice thing about cemetery projects is that we can complete the cleaning in one day," Djanowski said. "These are historic, outdoor, exposed stones, in a prominent location."
Djanowski has put in 14-15 years fixing lasers all over the world. He said that his new invention was "the result of over a decade of frustration and inconvenience with lasers."
It took him 10 years of research and development, using a revolutionary design concept, to perfect the device. Most lasers used a linear pattern but his uses a circular scan pattern. It cleans twice the area and is more consistent, with "no hot spots."
Djanowski was able to design and build his laser, despite having no formal engineering training. He has had an extensive education, though, earning his master's in art conservation from the University of Delaware. He also studied art, culture and conservation in Poland and spent a year studying laser applications at the Military University of Technology in Warsaw. It helps that he is fluent in Polish. Before that, he earned his B.A. in art history and economics at Northwestern University.
After building his prototype and putting it through extensive testing, Djanowski used it to clean Cleopatra's Needle in Central Park in 2014. The obelisk was a gift from Egypt. It is 70 feet tall and 3,500 years old.
In 2011, Egyptian officials threatened to take it back, because it was being neglected. It had a layer of dirt from decades of burning fossil fuels. Conservators used lasers to give it a cleaning that will last for 500 years.
"There were seven lasers on the site," Djanowski said, "And my one laser did 65 percent of the project. It was reliable and productive and out-performed everything else."
He explained that the laser cleans the contaminated layer by "exciting the molecules and breaking them down."
It vaporizes carbon, grime and corrosion.
"It has an extraction vacuum, so it doesn't contaminate the environment," Djanowski said.
There is a big demand for laser cleaning and Djanowski teaches the technique to employees, interns and colleagues at CSOS. They have gotten commissions all over the world, including cleaning the façade of the U.S. Supreme Court building, the Canadian Parliament in Ottawa and French Corbels at the Art Institute.
"There are many soot-covered treasures all over the world, due to auto traffic," Djanowski said
Forest Parker at the forefront of laser technology
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A new world record for a blue laser based on Ammono’s substrate
TopGaN, the Polish blue laser maker has just announced a successful demonstration of a novel blue laser architecture based on Ammono’s substrate. An output power of 4W cw was obtained for a blue laser array of 16 stripes. The result is built on two main characteristics of Ammono-GaN. A high carrier concentration of the substrate, which is 1019 cm-3and a low dislocation density which is 104 cm-2. This result is the best world result today and shows the very high potential of Ammono substrates for pushing the blue laser technology to its further limits.
A new world record for a blue laser based on Ammono’s substrate
TopGaN, the Polish blue laser maker has just announced a successful demonstration of a novel blue laser architecture based on Ammono’s substrate. An output power of 4W cw was obtained for a blue laser array of 16 stripes. The result is built on two main characteristics of Ammono-GaN. A high carrier concentration of the substrate, which is 1019 cm-3and a low dislocation density which is 104 cm-2. This result is the best world result today and shows the very high potential of Ammono substrates for pushing the blue laser technology to its further limits.A new world record for a blue laser based on Ammono’s substrate
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Peter Bielkowicz (1 February 1902 – 30 September 1993) was a physicist. He worked on designing the Apollo Lunar Module and many other projects. He developed and taught courses in many fields, including aerodynamics, flight mechanics, ballistics, mathematics, and astrodynamics. He created AFIT's first courses in space mechanics and spaceflight. His astrodynamics courses were a central focus of the AFIT Astronautics program introduced in 1958.
He was a doctor of mathematics working in the Polish aircraft industry when Germany overran Poland. He evaded capture and made his way to Franceonly to be overrun again by the Germans. He escaped to Spain by crossing the Pyrenees Mountains on foot and then walked through Spain. Just as he was about to step onto British soil at Gibraltar, the Spanish police arrested him. After two years in a Spanish prison, he was set free when the Allies of World War II defeated the Axis powers in Africa. He worked in the British aircraft industry for a few years after the war, and later was recruited by the United States while the United States space program was still in its infancy.
Professor Bielkowicz joined the faculty of the Air Force Institute of Technology School of Engineering in July 1953 as an Assistant Professor.[1] He worked on designing the Apollo Lunar Module and many other projects including reusable spacecraft. He developed and taught courses in many fields, including aerodynamics, flight mechanics, ballistics, mathematics, and astrodynamics. He created AFIT's first courses in space mechanics and spaceflight. His astrodynamics courses were a central focus of the AFIT astronautics program introduced in 1958.
He also introduced orbital mechanics and familiarized his students with Moulton’s text on celestial mechanics. These classes taught missile trajectories and orbits. The missile ballistics class covered the ballistic flight solutions and various empirical solutions that had been developed.
Peter Bielkowicz - Wikipedia
He was a doctor of mathematics working in the Polish aircraft industry when Germany overran Poland. He evaded capture and made his way to Franceonly to be overrun again by the Germans. He escaped to Spain by crossing the Pyrenees Mountains on foot and then walked through Spain. Just as he was about to step onto British soil at Gibraltar, the Spanish police arrested him. After two years in a Spanish prison, he was set free when the Allies of World War II defeated the Axis powers in Africa. He worked in the British aircraft industry for a few years after the war, and later was recruited by the United States while the United States space program was still in its infancy.
Professor Bielkowicz joined the faculty of the Air Force Institute of Technology School of Engineering in July 1953 as an Assistant Professor.[1] He worked on designing the Apollo Lunar Module and many other projects including reusable spacecraft. He developed and taught courses in many fields, including aerodynamics, flight mechanics, ballistics, mathematics, and astrodynamics. He created AFIT's first courses in space mechanics and spaceflight. His astrodynamics courses were a central focus of the AFIT astronautics program introduced in 1958.
He also introduced orbital mechanics and familiarized his students with Moulton’s text on celestial mechanics. These classes taught missile trajectories and orbits. The missile ballistics class covered the ballistic flight solutions and various empirical solutions that had been developed.
Peter Bielkowicz - Wikipedia
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A hypernucleus is a nucleus which contains at least one hyperon (a baryon carrying the strangeness quantum number) in addition to the normal protonsand neutrons. The first was discovered by Marian Danysz and Jerzy Pniewski in 1952 using the nuclear emulsion technique.
The strangeness quantum number is conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions, a variety of reactions give access to depositing one or more units of strangeness in a nucleus. Hypernuclei containing the lightest hyperon, the Lambda, live long enough to have sharp nuclear energy levels. Therefore, they offer opportunities for nuclear spectroscopy, as well as reaction mechanism study and other types of nuclear physics (hypernuclear physics).
Hypernuclear physics differs from that of normal nuclei because a hyperon, having a non-zero strangeness quantum number, can share space and momentum coordinates with the usual four nucleon states that can differ from each other in spin and isospin. That is, they are not restricted by the Pauli Exclusion Principle from any single-particle state in the nucleus. The ground state of helium-5-Lambda, for example, must resemble helium-4 more than it does helium-5 or lithium-5 and must be stable, apart from the eventual weak decay of the Lambda. Sigma hypernuclei have been sought,[1] as have doubly-strange nuclei containing Cascade baryons.
Hypernuclei can be made by a nucleus capturing a Lambda or K meson and boiling off neutrons in a compound nuclear reaction, or, perhaps most easily, by the direct strangeness exchange reaction.
K
+ nucleus →
π
+ hypernucleus
A generalized mass formula developed for both the non-strange normal nuclei and strange hypernuclei can estimate masses of hypernuclei containing Lambda, Lambda-Lambda, Sigma, Cascade and Theta+ hyperon(s).[2][3] The neutron and proton driplines for hypernuclei are predicted and existence of some exotic hypernuclei beyond the normal neutron and proton driplines are suggested.[4] This generalized mass formula was named as "Samanta Formula" by Botvina and Pochodzalla and used to predict relative yields of hypernuclei in multifragmentation of nuclear spectator matter.[5]
Hypernuclei were first observed by their energetic but delayed decay, but have also been studied by measuring the momenta of the K and pi mesons in the direct strangeness exchange reactions.
Hypernucleus - Wikipedia
The strangeness quantum number is conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions, a variety of reactions give access to depositing one or more units of strangeness in a nucleus. Hypernuclei containing the lightest hyperon, the Lambda, live long enough to have sharp nuclear energy levels. Therefore, they offer opportunities for nuclear spectroscopy, as well as reaction mechanism study and other types of nuclear physics (hypernuclear physics).
Hypernuclear physics differs from that of normal nuclei because a hyperon, having a non-zero strangeness quantum number, can share space and momentum coordinates with the usual four nucleon states that can differ from each other in spin and isospin. That is, they are not restricted by the Pauli Exclusion Principle from any single-particle state in the nucleus. The ground state of helium-5-Lambda, for example, must resemble helium-4 more than it does helium-5 or lithium-5 and must be stable, apart from the eventual weak decay of the Lambda. Sigma hypernuclei have been sought,[1] as have doubly-strange nuclei containing Cascade baryons.
Hypernuclei can be made by a nucleus capturing a Lambda or K meson and boiling off neutrons in a compound nuclear reaction, or, perhaps most easily, by the direct strangeness exchange reaction.
K
+ nucleus →
π
+ hypernucleus
A generalized mass formula developed for both the non-strange normal nuclei and strange hypernuclei can estimate masses of hypernuclei containing Lambda, Lambda-Lambda, Sigma, Cascade and Theta+ hyperon(s).[2][3] The neutron and proton driplines for hypernuclei are predicted and existence of some exotic hypernuclei beyond the normal neutron and proton driplines are suggested.[4] This generalized mass formula was named as "Samanta Formula" by Botvina and Pochodzalla and used to predict relative yields of hypernuclei in multifragmentation of nuclear spectator matter.[5]
Hypernuclei were first observed by their energetic but delayed decay, but have also been studied by measuring the momenta of the K and pi mesons in the direct strangeness exchange reactions.
Hypernucleus - Wikipedia
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olish notation (PN), also known as normal Polish notation (NPN),[1] Łukasiewicz notation, Warsaw notation, Polish prefix notation or simply prefix notation, is a mathematical notation in which operators precede their operands, in contrast to reverse Polish notation (RPN) in which operators follow their operands. It does not need any parentheses as long as each operator has a fixed number of operands. The description "Polish" refers to the nationality of logician Jan Łukasiewicz,[2] who invented Polish notation in 1924.[3][4]
The term Polish notation is sometimes taken (as the opposite of infix notation) to also include reverse Polish notation.[5]
When Polish notation is used as a syntax for mathematical expressions by programming language interpreters, it is readily parsed into abstract syntax trees and can, in fact, define a one-to-one representation for the same. Because of this, Lisp (see below) and related programming languages define their entire syntax in terms of prefix notation (and others use postfix notation).
A quotation from a paper by Jan Łukasiewicz, Remarks on Nicod's Axiom and on "Generalizing Deduction", page 180, states how the notation was invented:
I came upon the idea of a parenthesis-free notation in 1924. I used that notation for the first time in my article Łukasiewicz(1), p. 610, footnote.
The reference cited by Łukasiewicz is apparently a lithographed report in Polish. The referring paper by Łukasiewicz Remarks on Nicod's Axiom and on "Generalizing Deduction" was reviewed by Henry A. Pogorzelski in the Journal of Symbolic Logic in 1965.[6] Heinrich Behmann, editor in 1924 of the article of Moses Schönfinkel[7] already had the idea of eliminating parentheses in logic formulas.
Alonzo Church mentions this notation in his classic book on mathematical logic as worthy of remark in notational systems even contrasted to Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell's logical notational exposition and work in Principia Mathematica.[8]
In Łukasiewicz's 1951 book, Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic, he mentions that the principle of his notation was to write the functors before the arguments to avoid brackets and that he had employed his notation in his logical papers since 1929.[9] He then goes on to cite, as an example, a 1930 paper he wrote with Alfred Tarski on the sentential calculus.[10]
While no longer used much in logic,[11] Polish notation has since found a place in computer science.
Contents
The expression for adding the numbers 1 and 2 is written in Polish notation as + 1 2 (pre-fix), rather than as 1 + 2 (in-fix). In more complex expressions, the operators still precede their operands, but the operands may themselves be expressions including again operators and their operands. For instance, the expression that would be written in conventional infix notation as
(5 − 6) × 7
can be written in Polish notation as
× (− 5 6) 7
Assuming a given arity of all involved operators (here the "−" denotes the binary operation of subtraction, not the unary function of sign-change), any well formed prefix representation thereof is unambiguous, and brackets within the prefix expression are unnecessary. As such, the above expression can be further simplified to
× − 5 6 7
The processing of the product is deferred until its two operands are available (i.e., 5 minus 6, and 7). As with any notation, the innermost expressions are evaluated first, but in Polish notation this "innermost-ness" can be conveyed by the sequence of operators and operands rather than by bracketing.
In the conventional infix notation parentheses are required to override the standard precedence rules, since, referring to the above example, moving them
5 − (6 × 7)
or removing them
5 − 6 × 7
changes the meaning and the result of the expression. This version is written in Polish notation as
− 5 × 6 7.
When dealing with non-commutative operations, like division or subtraction, it is necessary to coordinate the sequential arrangement of the operands with the definition of how the operator takes its arguments, i.e., from left to right. For example, ÷ 10 5, with 10 left to 5, has the meaning of 10 ÷ 5 (read as "divide 10 by 5"), or - 7 6, with 7 left to 6, has the meaning of 7 - 6 (read as "subtract from 7 the operand 6").
Prefix evaluation algorithm[edit]
Prefix notation is especially popular with stack-based operations due to its innate ability to easily distinguish order of operations without the need for parentheses. To evaluate order of operations under prefix notation, one does not even need to memorize an operational hierarchy, as with infix notation. Instead, one looks directly to the notation to discover which operator to evaluate first. Reading an expression from left to right, one first looks for an operator and proceeds to look for two operands. If another operator is found before two operands are found, then the old operator is placed aside until this new operator is resolved. This process iterates until an operator is resolved, which must happen eventually, as there must be one more operand than there are operators in a complete statement. Once resolved, the operator and the two operands are replaced with a new operand. Because one operator and two operands are removed and one operand is added, there is a net loss of one operator and one operand, which still leaves an expression with Noperators and N + 1 operands, thus allowing the iterative process to continue. This is the general theory behind using stacks in programming languages to evaluate a statement in prefix notation, although there are various algorithms that manipulate the process. Once analyzed, a statement in prefix notation becomes less intimidating to the human mind as it allows some separation from convention with added convenience.
if token is an operator:
push token onto the operator stack
pending_operand ← False
else if token is an operand:
operand ← token
if pending_operand is True:
while the operand stack is not empty:
operand_1 ← pop from the operand stack
operator ← pop from the operator stack
operand ← evaluate operator with operand_1 and operand
push operand onto the operand stack
pending_operand ← True
result ← pop from the operand stack
if token is an operator:
operand_1 ← pop from the stack
operand_2 ← pop from the stack
result ← evaluate token with operand_1 and operand_2
push result back onto the stack
else if token is an operand:
push token onto the stack
result ← pop from the stack
Example[edit]
The infix expression ((15 ÷ (7 − (1 + 1))) × 3) − (2 + (1 + 1)) can be written like this in Polish notation:
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 + 2 + 1 1
− × ÷ 15 − 7 2 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− × ÷ 15 5 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− × 3 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− 9 + 2 + 1 1 =
− 9 + 2 2 =
− 9 4 =
5
The following table shows the state of the operator and operand stack at each stage of the above left-to-right algorithm:
Token Type Operator Stack Operand Stack Pending Operand Actions
− Operator − False Push onto operator stack.
× Operator − × False Push onto operator stack.
÷ Operator − × ÷ False Push onto operator stack.
15 Operand − × ÷ 15 True Push onto operand stack.
− Operator − × ÷ − 15 False Push onto operator stack.
7 Operator − × ÷ − 15 7 True Push onto operand stack.
+ Operator − × ÷ − + 15 7 False Push onto operator stack.
1 Operand − × ÷ − + 15 7 1 True Push onto operand stack.
1 Operand − × 3 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
3 Operand − 9 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
+ Operator − + 9 False Push onto operator stack.
2 Operand − + 9 2 True Push onto operand stack.
+ Operator − + + 9 2 False Push onto operator stack.
1 Operand − + + 9 2 1 True Push onto operand stack.
1 Operand 5 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 + 2 2 =
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 4 =
− × ÷ 15 − 7 2 3 4 =
− × ÷ 15 5 3 4 =
− × 3 3 4 =
− 9 4 =
5
The following table shows the state of the operand stack at each stage of the above right-to-left algorithm:
Token Type Stack Actions
1 Operand 1 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 1 1 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 2 Pop from stack twice (1, 1), calculate (1 + 1 = 2) and push onto stack.
2 Operand 2 2 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 4 Pop from stack twice (2, 2), calculate (2 + 2 = 4) and push onto stack.
3 Operand 4 3 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 4 3 1 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 4 3 1 1 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 4 3 2 Pop from stack twice (1, 1), calculate (1 + 1 = 2) and push onto stack.
7 Operand 4 3 2 7 Push onto stack.
− Operator 4 3 5 Pop from stack twice (7, 2), calculate (7 − 2 = 5) and push onto stack.
15 Operand 4 3 5 15 Push onto stack.
÷ Operator 4 3 3 Pop from stack twice (15, 5), calculate (15 ÷ 5 = 3) and push onto stack.
× Operator 4 9 Pop from stack twice (3, 3), calculate (3 × 3 = 9) and push onto stack.
− Operator 5 Pop from stack twice (9, 4), calculate (9 − 4 = 5) and push onto stack.
Polish notation for logic[edit]
The table below shows the core of Jan Łukasiewicz's notation for sentential logic.[12] Some letters in the Polish notation table stand for particular words in Polish, as shown:
Concept Conventional
notation Polish
notation Polish
term
Negation {\displaystyle \neg \varphi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {N} \varphi }
negacja
Conjunction {\displaystyle \varphi \land \psi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {K} \varphi \psi }
koniunkcja
Disjunction {\displaystyle \varphi \lor \psi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {A} \varphi \psi }
alternatywa
Material conditional {\displaystyle \varphi \to \psi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {C} \varphi \psi }
implikacja
Biconditional {\displaystyle \varphi \leftrightarrow \psi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {E} \varphi \psi }
ekwiwalencja
Falsum {\displaystyle \bot }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {O} }
fałsz
Sheffer stroke {\displaystyle \varphi \mid \psi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {D} \varphi \psi }
dysjunkcja
Possibility {\displaystyle \Diamond \varphi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \varphi }
możliwość
Necessity {\displaystyle \Box \varphi }
{\displaystyle \mathrm {L} \varphi }
konieczność
Universal quantifier {\displaystyle \forall p\,\varphi }
{\displaystyle \Pi p\,\varphi }
kwantyfikator ogólny
Existential quantifier {\displaystyle \exists p\,\varphi }
{\displaystyle \Sigma p\,\varphi }
kwantyfikator szczegółowy
Note that the quantifiers ranged over propositional values in Łukasiewicz's work on many-valued logics.
Bocheński introduced an incompatible system of Polish notation that names all 16 binary connectives of classical propositional logic.[13]
Implementations[edit]
Prefix notation has seen wide application in Lisp s-expressions, where the brackets are required since the operators in the language are themselves data (first-class functions). Lisp functions may also be variadic. The Tcl programming language, much like Lisp also uses Polish notation through the mathop library. The Ambi[14] programming language uses Polish notation for arithmetic operations and program construction.
Postfix notation is used in many stack-oriented programming languages like PostScript and Forth. CoffeeScript syntax also allows functions to be called using prefix notation, while still supporting the unary postfix syntax common in other languages.
The number of return values of an expression equals the difference between the number of operands in an expression and the total arity of the operators minus the total number of return values of the operators.
Polish notation, usually in postfix form, is the chosen notation of certain calculators, notably from Hewlett-Packard.[15] At a lower level, postfix operators are used by some stack machines such as the Burroughs large systems.
Polish notation - Wikipedia
The term Polish notation is sometimes taken (as the opposite of infix notation) to also include reverse Polish notation.[5]
When Polish notation is used as a syntax for mathematical expressions by programming language interpreters, it is readily parsed into abstract syntax trees and can, in fact, define a one-to-one representation for the same. Because of this, Lisp (see below) and related programming languages define their entire syntax in terms of prefix notation (and others use postfix notation).
A quotation from a paper by Jan Łukasiewicz, Remarks on Nicod's Axiom and on "Generalizing Deduction", page 180, states how the notation was invented:
I came upon the idea of a parenthesis-free notation in 1924. I used that notation for the first time in my article Łukasiewicz(1), p. 610, footnote.
The reference cited by Łukasiewicz is apparently a lithographed report in Polish. The referring paper by Łukasiewicz Remarks on Nicod's Axiom and on "Generalizing Deduction" was reviewed by Henry A. Pogorzelski in the Journal of Symbolic Logic in 1965.[6] Heinrich Behmann, editor in 1924 of the article of Moses Schönfinkel[7] already had the idea of eliminating parentheses in logic formulas.
Alonzo Church mentions this notation in his classic book on mathematical logic as worthy of remark in notational systems even contrasted to Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell's logical notational exposition and work in Principia Mathematica.[8]
In Łukasiewicz's 1951 book, Aristotle's Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic, he mentions that the principle of his notation was to write the functors before the arguments to avoid brackets and that he had employed his notation in his logical papers since 1929.[9] He then goes on to cite, as an example, a 1930 paper he wrote with Alfred Tarski on the sentential calculus.[10]
While no longer used much in logic,[11] Polish notation has since found a place in computer science.
Contents
- 1Explanation
- 2Prefix evaluation algorithm
- 3Polish notation for logic
- 4Implementations
- 5See also
- 6References
- 7Further reading
The expression for adding the numbers 1 and 2 is written in Polish notation as + 1 2 (pre-fix), rather than as 1 + 2 (in-fix). In more complex expressions, the operators still precede their operands, but the operands may themselves be expressions including again operators and their operands. For instance, the expression that would be written in conventional infix notation as
(5 − 6) × 7
can be written in Polish notation as
× (− 5 6) 7
Assuming a given arity of all involved operators (here the "−" denotes the binary operation of subtraction, not the unary function of sign-change), any well formed prefix representation thereof is unambiguous, and brackets within the prefix expression are unnecessary. As such, the above expression can be further simplified to
× − 5 6 7
The processing of the product is deferred until its two operands are available (i.e., 5 minus 6, and 7). As with any notation, the innermost expressions are evaluated first, but in Polish notation this "innermost-ness" can be conveyed by the sequence of operators and operands rather than by bracketing.
In the conventional infix notation parentheses are required to override the standard precedence rules, since, referring to the above example, moving them
5 − (6 × 7)
or removing them
5 − 6 × 7
changes the meaning and the result of the expression. This version is written in Polish notation as
− 5 × 6 7.
When dealing with non-commutative operations, like division or subtraction, it is necessary to coordinate the sequential arrangement of the operands with the definition of how the operator takes its arguments, i.e., from left to right. For example, ÷ 10 5, with 10 left to 5, has the meaning of 10 ÷ 5 (read as "divide 10 by 5"), or - 7 6, with 7 left to 6, has the meaning of 7 - 6 (read as "subtract from 7 the operand 6").
Prefix evaluation algorithm[edit]
Prefix notation is especially popular with stack-based operations due to its innate ability to easily distinguish order of operations without the need for parentheses. To evaluate order of operations under prefix notation, one does not even need to memorize an operational hierarchy, as with infix notation. Instead, one looks directly to the notation to discover which operator to evaluate first. Reading an expression from left to right, one first looks for an operator and proceeds to look for two operands. If another operator is found before two operands are found, then the old operator is placed aside until this new operator is resolved. This process iterates until an operator is resolved, which must happen eventually, as there must be one more operand than there are operators in a complete statement. Once resolved, the operator and the two operands are replaced with a new operand. Because one operator and two operands are removed and one operand is added, there is a net loss of one operator and one operand, which still leaves an expression with Noperators and N + 1 operands, thus allowing the iterative process to continue. This is the general theory behind using stacks in programming languages to evaluate a statement in prefix notation, although there are various algorithms that manipulate the process. Once analyzed, a statement in prefix notation becomes less intimidating to the human mind as it allows some separation from convention with added convenience.
- Here is an algorithm for evaluating prefix expressions using a stack (under this algorithm the expression is processed from left to right):
if token is an operator:
push token onto the operator stack
pending_operand ← False
else if token is an operand:
operand ← token
if pending_operand is True:
while the operand stack is not empty:
operand_1 ← pop from the operand stack
operator ← pop from the operator stack
operand ← evaluate operator with operand_1 and operand
push operand onto the operand stack
pending_operand ← True
result ← pop from the operand stack
- Here is another algorithm for evaluating prefix expressions using a stack (under this algorithm the expression is processed from right to left):
if token is an operator:
operand_1 ← pop from the stack
operand_2 ← pop from the stack
result ← evaluate token with operand_1 and operand_2
push result back onto the stack
else if token is an operand:
push token onto the stack
result ← pop from the stack
Example[edit]
The infix expression ((15 ÷ (7 − (1 + 1))) × 3) − (2 + (1 + 1)) can be written like this in Polish notation:
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 + 2 + 1 1
- Evaluating this prefix expression with the above left-to-right algorithm yields:
− × ÷ 15 − 7 2 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− × ÷ 15 5 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− × 3 3 + 2 + 1 1 =
− 9 + 2 + 1 1 =
− 9 + 2 2 =
− 9 4 =
5
The following table shows the state of the operator and operand stack at each stage of the above left-to-right algorithm:
Token Type Operator Stack Operand Stack Pending Operand Actions
− Operator − False Push onto operator stack.
× Operator − × False Push onto operator stack.
÷ Operator − × ÷ False Push onto operator stack.
15 Operand − × ÷ 15 True Push onto operand stack.
− Operator − × ÷ − 15 False Push onto operator stack.
7 Operator − × ÷ − 15 7 True Push onto operand stack.
+ Operator − × ÷ − + 15 7 False Push onto operator stack.
1 Operand − × ÷ − + 15 7 1 True Push onto operand stack.
1 Operand − × 3 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
- Pop from operand stack (1) and operator stack (+), calculate (1 + 1 = 2).
- Pop from operand stack (7) and operator stack (−), calculate (7 − 2 = 5).
- Pop from operand stack (15) and operator stack (÷), calculate (15 ÷ 5 = 3).
3 Operand − 9 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
- Pop from operand stack (3) and operator stack (×), calculate (3 × 3 = 9).
+ Operator − + 9 False Push onto operator stack.
2 Operand − + 9 2 True Push onto operand stack.
+ Operator − + + 9 2 False Push onto operator stack.
1 Operand − + + 9 2 1 True Push onto operand stack.
1 Operand 5 True Loop while the operand stack is not empty.
- Pop from operand stack (1) and operator stack (+), calculate (1 + 1 = 2).
- Pop from operand stack (2) and operator stack (+), calculate (2 + 2 = 4).
- Pop from operand stack (9) and operator stack (-), calculate (9 − 4 = 5).
- Evaluating this prefix expression with the above right-to-left algorithm yields:
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 + 2 2 =
− × ÷ 15 − 7 + 1 1 3 4 =
− × ÷ 15 − 7 2 3 4 =
− × ÷ 15 5 3 4 =
− × 3 3 4 =
− 9 4 =
5
The following table shows the state of the operand stack at each stage of the above right-to-left algorithm:
Token Type Stack Actions
1 Operand 1 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 1 1 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 2 Pop from stack twice (1, 1), calculate (1 + 1 = 2) and push onto stack.
2 Operand 2 2 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 4 Pop from stack twice (2, 2), calculate (2 + 2 = 4) and push onto stack.
3 Operand 4 3 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 4 3 1 Push onto stack.
1 Operand 4 3 1 1 Push onto stack.
+ Operator 4 3 2 Pop from stack twice (1, 1), calculate (1 + 1 = 2) and push onto stack.
7 Operand 4 3 2 7 Push onto stack.
− Operator 4 3 5 Pop from stack twice (7, 2), calculate (7 − 2 = 5) and push onto stack.
15 Operand 4 3 5 15 Push onto stack.
÷ Operator 4 3 3 Pop from stack twice (15, 5), calculate (15 ÷ 5 = 3) and push onto stack.
× Operator 4 9 Pop from stack twice (3, 3), calculate (3 × 3 = 9) and push onto stack.
− Operator 5 Pop from stack twice (9, 4), calculate (9 − 4 = 5) and push onto stack.
Polish notation for logic[edit]
The table below shows the core of Jan Łukasiewicz's notation for sentential logic.[12] Some letters in the Polish notation table stand for particular words in Polish, as shown:
Concept Conventional
notation Polish
notation Polish
term
Negation {\displaystyle \neg \varphi }
Conjunction {\displaystyle \varphi \land \psi }
Disjunction {\displaystyle \varphi \lor \psi }
Material conditional {\displaystyle \varphi \to \psi }
Biconditional {\displaystyle \varphi \leftrightarrow \psi }
Falsum {\displaystyle \bot }
Sheffer stroke {\displaystyle \varphi \mid \psi }
Possibility {\displaystyle \Diamond \varphi }
Necessity {\displaystyle \Box \varphi }
Universal quantifier {\displaystyle \forall p\,\varphi }
Existential quantifier {\displaystyle \exists p\,\varphi }
Note that the quantifiers ranged over propositional values in Łukasiewicz's work on many-valued logics.
Bocheński introduced an incompatible system of Polish notation that names all 16 binary connectives of classical propositional logic.[13]
Implementations[edit]
Prefix notation has seen wide application in Lisp s-expressions, where the brackets are required since the operators in the language are themselves data (first-class functions). Lisp functions may also be variadic. The Tcl programming language, much like Lisp also uses Polish notation through the mathop library. The Ambi[14] programming language uses Polish notation for arithmetic operations and program construction.
Postfix notation is used in many stack-oriented programming languages like PostScript and Forth. CoffeeScript syntax also allows functions to be called using prefix notation, while still supporting the unary postfix syntax common in other languages.
The number of return values of an expression equals the difference between the number of operands in an expression and the total arity of the operators minus the total number of return values of the operators.
Polish notation, usually in postfix form, is the chosen notation of certain calculators, notably from Hewlett-Packard.[15] At a lower level, postfix operators are used by some stack machines such as the Burroughs large systems.
Polish notation - Wikipedia
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