The Critical Theory of the “Institute for Social Research,” which is better known as the Frankfurt School, focused on power analyses that began from a Marxist (or
Marxian) perspective with an aim to understand why Marxism wasn’t proving successful in
Western contexts. It rapidly developed a “
post-Marxist” position that criticized Marx’s primary focus on economics and expanded his views on
power,
alienation, and
exploitation into all aspects of post-
Enlightenment Western culture. These theorists sometimes referred to themselves as “
cultural Marxists,” and were referred to that way by others, but the term “
cultural Marxism” is now more commonly used to describe (a misconception of)
postmodernism (see also,
neo-Marxism) or a certain anti-Semitic
conspiracy theory. The big-picture agenda of the Frankfurt School was to marry Marxian economic theory to Freudian psychoanalytic theory in order to explain both the rise of
fascism and the reasons that the communist
revolutions were not taking place in
Western democracies as had been predicted.
Max Horkheimer defined a “Critical Theory” in direct opposition to a “Traditional Theory” in a 1937 piece called
Traditional and Critical Theory. Whereas a Traditional Theory is meant to be descriptive of some phenomenon, usually social, and aims to understand how it works and why it works that way,
a Critical Theory should proceed from a prescriptive normative moral vision for society, describe how the item being critiqued fails that vision (usually in a systemic sense), and prescribe activism to subvert, dismantle, disrupt, overthrow, or change it—that is, generally, to break and then remake society in accordance with the particular critical theory’s prescribed vision. This use of the word “critical” is drawn from Marx’s insistence that
everything be “ruthlessly” criticized and from his admonition that the point of studying society is to change it. Of note, then, a Critical Theory is only tangentially concerned with understanding or truth and has, as Hume might have it, abandoned descriptions of what
is in favor of pushing for what the particular critical theory holds
ought to be. The
critical methodology, then, is the central object of concern, and it is the tool by which Social Justice scholarship and activism proceed.