A. Wind Energy
The inherent variability of the power output is the most
significant difference between wind and traditional power
generators. This variability occurs at various time scales:
seconds, hours, days, months, and years. As loads are also
uncertain and variable, the issue of wind power variability
does not cause major problems at low wind energy penetration
levels, but at deep penetration levels it presents major
engineering, economic and societal challenges. Recently, the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), has released
two major reports [17], [21] on integration of large amounts
of wind power (20-30%) into the Eastern and Western electric
grid interconnections in North America. These studies show
that limitations on the transmission system, increased need for
reserves, impact of unpredicted large ramps, limited accuracy
in wind forecasting, coordination among and conflicting objectives
of independent power producers, system operators, and
regulatory agencies, are some of the major issues in achieving
increased penetration of wind and solar energy.