Since the world did not end like the Mayan calendar said it would, the late Indians to our country's South were not as sophisticated as they tried to appear to be.
Would you agree with me though that the Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs were superior to the Europeans?
Which foods the Aztecs, Incas and Mayas developed and refined do you enjoy eating?
Many aspects exist that can be compared between two cultures easily. Although, several cultural aspects like art, religion and language are impossible to compare objectively. The art of a certain race could be viewed as highly advanced to one person, but to another it could seem crude and ugly. Of course, things like the military, agriculture, and medicine can be compared factually. How many wars did the Mayas fight? Were the Incas successful farmers? What kind of medicine did the Aztecs use? All these questions can be answered objectively with a minimum use of opinion.
The Indians of Mexico and South America had relatively little warfare while European history is plagued with belligerent leaders. Although men entered the armed forces of the Aztecs at fifteen, their battles lacked the intensity of warring European nations who only seeked to conquer and seize other nations and lands. Mainly, the Aztecs fought to secure human sacrifices for their ceremonies. These conflicts are now called "Wars of the Flower" because of the non-violent nature of them. The Incas and the Mayas had common reasons for their occasional warfare. Both bravely protected their domains for thousands of years with their efficacious armies. This is what sets these Indians' militaries apart from the European aggressors. European nations fought to enlargen their empires, but the Incas and the Mayas fought to protect their existing domains from intruders.
The European and Indian life was rife with religion. Like many early Europeans, the Aztecs, Mayas, and the Incas practiced polytheism. Viracocha, the Incan supreme god, created other deities like the sun, thunder and moon-gods of the Incas. The Aztec pantheon was a large one, containing more than sixty major deities and numerous lesser ones. The gods were ranked in importance, and each one had its own cult and special hierarchies of priests.1 The Mayas had less worship to the gods, but everyday chores took on a religious meaning. For example, religion influenced Mayan art, architecture, learning and work. The Mayas relied heavily on highly ritualistic ceremonies to fulfill their devout emotions. Hoping to please their gods, they often hurled bodies encumbered with gold into their wells, when they were plagued by drought. Ultimately, many Aztec rituals required the sacrificing of thousands of human victims to the gods, whose strength needed perpetual renewal with the most spiritually powerful of all foods: human hearts and blood. Victims were led up the steep steps of pyramids to temples on top, where their hearts were cut out and their heads impaled on skull racks.2 Also, other shocking sacrifices prevailed in the Aztec society.
Much of early medicine was based on superstitious beliefs and therapeutic herbs, but in early Europe, Hippocrates started to scientifically study diseases and ailments. The Aztecs became fairly successful at using herbs and plant as drugs to stop fever, dysentery, spasms and bleeding. The Incas went even further into the world of medicine. They had surgeons who could remove sections of the skull to cure headaches or disease. The Incas also were notable herbalists.
The social structure of the Aztecs and the Mayas differed notably from that of Europe. Leaders in Europe were all powerful and often exercised dictatorship and demagoguery. In contrast, the leaders and elite group of the Mayas were deeply meditative, religious, and appreciative of beauty and learning. Of course, both upper classes wore only the most luxurious of apparel. The elite caste of the Aztecs had some variances. The common people often looked upon these nobles as deities and could only approach these Chief of Men, as they were called, in a very submissive mien. The common group of the Indians contained most of the people. The Europeans, on the other hand,3 had small middle classes which were mostly independent farmers, merchants and skilled craftsmen comprising it. One common element is both Indians and most Europeans had slaves at the bottom of their social ladder.
Although the Indians had basically the same farming methods as the Europeans, the Indians developed many crops the Europeans did not have. Most Europeans used the three-fields system in which only two fields at a time were used to allow the third field to replenish its fertility. After the Mayan fields had been cleared from jungle growth, the field's fertility lasted about two years. Consequently, they had to clear new fields and eventually they began the cycle again by going back to the old fields. Despite this, they produced an ever growing list of agricultural crops.
The Aztecs and the Incas had remarkably similar methods of farming, and both had numerous agricultural productions. They employed complex irrigation systems utilizing aqueducts, ditches, canals and terraces. Also, both had a special farming aid: the Aztecs had artificial islands in their lakes; and the Incas had guano fertilizer. The most common food among these Indians was corn. Other successful crops included beans, chili, cotton, sweet manioc, mangoes and papayas. In addition, Indians developed numerous other agricultural articles unknown to Europeans; grown in various regions, they included white and sweet potatoes, tobacco, peanuts, peppers, vanilla, tomatoes, pumpkins, cacao, avocados and pineapples.4
In most cases, the Indians possessed a better skill for art and architecture than many Europeans. The Mayan architects, sculptors, painters and artisans in ceramics, jade and wood left works that bear comparison with those of any ancient Old World civilization except perhaps Greece. Mayan wall paintings at Bonampak and masks, jewelry and other objects found in many tombs at Palenque are among the finest creative works of American Indian cultures.5 The Aztecs seemed to put more of their own emotions into their art. It was above all the minor arts that made life more decorative for they were applied, with great success, to everything from the humblest earthenware dish to jewels of gold: nothing was vulgar; nothing showed the signs of hasty workmanship.6
The Incas concentrated their work force on building massive stone structures. They often employed 30,000 people at a time to transport the huge stones needed. After they had moved the boulders several miles, they edged and fitted the stones together to form the structure. Even today, a knife blade will not fit between those stones.
The decline of the Indian Empires was the result of Europe's continuing thirst for more land. The two Spanish leaders, Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, used similar tactics to conquer the Aztecs and the Incas respectively. Both Indian empires first regarded these newcomers as supernatural gods because of their unfamiliarity. This led to an over abundance of trust by the Indians whom the Spanish easily subdued because of the late opposition and vacillation of the Indians. However, the Mayas were not militarily taken over, but they had a gradual decline. Constant failure of their crops led to the debilitation of their cities.
Notes
1. Josephy, Alvin M. The Indian Heritage of America, New York, N.Y., 1968, pp.215-16
2. Ibid., p. 216
3. like late in Feudalism
4. Ibid., p. 29
5. Ibid., p. 209
6. Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs, Stanford, Ca. 1973, pp. 229-30
Bibliography
Josephy, Alvin M. The Indian Heritage of America, New York, N.Y., 1968
Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs, trans. by Patrick O'brien, Stanford, Ca., 1973
Schapiro, Salwyn J. and Morris, Richard B. Civilization in Europe, Cambridge, Ma., 1933.
The Incas, Mayas, Aztecs and Europe: A Comparison (10-18-77)
Teach: You were to include Greece and Rome in your comparison and confine it to the Northern Europeans. I am sure had you done that you might have drawn different conclusions. On the whole, your paper represents quite an effort. It is well developed, researched and well written.
Grade: A
Class: Ethnic Studies
Would you agree with me though that the Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs were superior to the Europeans?
Which foods the Aztecs, Incas and Mayas developed and refined do you enjoy eating?
Many aspects exist that can be compared between two cultures easily. Although, several cultural aspects like art, religion and language are impossible to compare objectively. The art of a certain race could be viewed as highly advanced to one person, but to another it could seem crude and ugly. Of course, things like the military, agriculture, and medicine can be compared factually. How many wars did the Mayas fight? Were the Incas successful farmers? What kind of medicine did the Aztecs use? All these questions can be answered objectively with a minimum use of opinion.
The Indians of Mexico and South America had relatively little warfare while European history is plagued with belligerent leaders. Although men entered the armed forces of the Aztecs at fifteen, their battles lacked the intensity of warring European nations who only seeked to conquer and seize other nations and lands. Mainly, the Aztecs fought to secure human sacrifices for their ceremonies. These conflicts are now called "Wars of the Flower" because of the non-violent nature of them. The Incas and the Mayas had common reasons for their occasional warfare. Both bravely protected their domains for thousands of years with their efficacious armies. This is what sets these Indians' militaries apart from the European aggressors. European nations fought to enlargen their empires, but the Incas and the Mayas fought to protect their existing domains from intruders.
The European and Indian life was rife with religion. Like many early Europeans, the Aztecs, Mayas, and the Incas practiced polytheism. Viracocha, the Incan supreme god, created other deities like the sun, thunder and moon-gods of the Incas. The Aztec pantheon was a large one, containing more than sixty major deities and numerous lesser ones. The gods were ranked in importance, and each one had its own cult and special hierarchies of priests.1 The Mayas had less worship to the gods, but everyday chores took on a religious meaning. For example, religion influenced Mayan art, architecture, learning and work. The Mayas relied heavily on highly ritualistic ceremonies to fulfill their devout emotions. Hoping to please their gods, they often hurled bodies encumbered with gold into their wells, when they were plagued by drought. Ultimately, many Aztec rituals required the sacrificing of thousands of human victims to the gods, whose strength needed perpetual renewal with the most spiritually powerful of all foods: human hearts and blood. Victims were led up the steep steps of pyramids to temples on top, where their hearts were cut out and their heads impaled on skull racks.2 Also, other shocking sacrifices prevailed in the Aztec society.
Much of early medicine was based on superstitious beliefs and therapeutic herbs, but in early Europe, Hippocrates started to scientifically study diseases and ailments. The Aztecs became fairly successful at using herbs and plant as drugs to stop fever, dysentery, spasms and bleeding. The Incas went even further into the world of medicine. They had surgeons who could remove sections of the skull to cure headaches or disease. The Incas also were notable herbalists.
The social structure of the Aztecs and the Mayas differed notably from that of Europe. Leaders in Europe were all powerful and often exercised dictatorship and demagoguery. In contrast, the leaders and elite group of the Mayas were deeply meditative, religious, and appreciative of beauty and learning. Of course, both upper classes wore only the most luxurious of apparel. The elite caste of the Aztecs had some variances. The common people often looked upon these nobles as deities and could only approach these Chief of Men, as they were called, in a very submissive mien. The common group of the Indians contained most of the people. The Europeans, on the other hand,3 had small middle classes which were mostly independent farmers, merchants and skilled craftsmen comprising it. One common element is both Indians and most Europeans had slaves at the bottom of their social ladder.
Although the Indians had basically the same farming methods as the Europeans, the Indians developed many crops the Europeans did not have. Most Europeans used the three-fields system in which only two fields at a time were used to allow the third field to replenish its fertility. After the Mayan fields had been cleared from jungle growth, the field's fertility lasted about two years. Consequently, they had to clear new fields and eventually they began the cycle again by going back to the old fields. Despite this, they produced an ever growing list of agricultural crops.
The Aztecs and the Incas had remarkably similar methods of farming, and both had numerous agricultural productions. They employed complex irrigation systems utilizing aqueducts, ditches, canals and terraces. Also, both had a special farming aid: the Aztecs had artificial islands in their lakes; and the Incas had guano fertilizer. The most common food among these Indians was corn. Other successful crops included beans, chili, cotton, sweet manioc, mangoes and papayas. In addition, Indians developed numerous other agricultural articles unknown to Europeans; grown in various regions, they included white and sweet potatoes, tobacco, peanuts, peppers, vanilla, tomatoes, pumpkins, cacao, avocados and pineapples.4
In most cases, the Indians possessed a better skill for art and architecture than many Europeans. The Mayan architects, sculptors, painters and artisans in ceramics, jade and wood left works that bear comparison with those of any ancient Old World civilization except perhaps Greece. Mayan wall paintings at Bonampak and masks, jewelry and other objects found in many tombs at Palenque are among the finest creative works of American Indian cultures.5 The Aztecs seemed to put more of their own emotions into their art. It was above all the minor arts that made life more decorative for they were applied, with great success, to everything from the humblest earthenware dish to jewels of gold: nothing was vulgar; nothing showed the signs of hasty workmanship.6
The Incas concentrated their work force on building massive stone structures. They often employed 30,000 people at a time to transport the huge stones needed. After they had moved the boulders several miles, they edged and fitted the stones together to form the structure. Even today, a knife blade will not fit between those stones.
The decline of the Indian Empires was the result of Europe's continuing thirst for more land. The two Spanish leaders, Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, used similar tactics to conquer the Aztecs and the Incas respectively. Both Indian empires first regarded these newcomers as supernatural gods because of their unfamiliarity. This led to an over abundance of trust by the Indians whom the Spanish easily subdued because of the late opposition and vacillation of the Indians. However, the Mayas were not militarily taken over, but they had a gradual decline. Constant failure of their crops led to the debilitation of their cities.
Notes
1. Josephy, Alvin M. The Indian Heritage of America, New York, N.Y., 1968, pp.215-16
2. Ibid., p. 216
3. like late in Feudalism
4. Ibid., p. 29
5. Ibid., p. 209
6. Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs, Stanford, Ca. 1973, pp. 229-30
Bibliography
Josephy, Alvin M. The Indian Heritage of America, New York, N.Y., 1968
Soustelle, Jacques. Daily Life of the Aztecs, trans. by Patrick O'brien, Stanford, Ca., 1973
Schapiro, Salwyn J. and Morris, Richard B. Civilization in Europe, Cambridge, Ma., 1933.
The Incas, Mayas, Aztecs and Europe: A Comparison (10-18-77)
Teach: You were to include Greece and Rome in your comparison and confine it to the Northern Europeans. I am sure had you done that you might have drawn different conclusions. On the whole, your paper represents quite an effort. It is well developed, researched and well written.
Grade: A
Class: Ethnic Studies
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